Looking for a similar answer, essay, or assessment help services?

Simply fill out the order form with your paper’s instructions in a few easy steps. This quick process ensures you’ll be matched with an expert writer who
Can meet your papers' specific grading rubric needs. Find the best write my essay assistance for your assignments- Affordable, plagiarism-free, and on time!

Posted: September 29th, 2019

Theories of Lifespan Development

Discuss three theories that have impacted our understandings of childhood in terms of social, emotional and/ or cognitive development and how these might be important to the field of counselling.

Summary

What Citation Formats Do You Support?

We hear “Can you write in APA or MLA?” all the time—and the answer’s a big yes, plus way more! Our writers are wizards with every style—APA, MLA, Harvard, Chicago, Turabian, you name it—delivering flawless formatting tailored to your assignment. Whether it’s a tricky in-text citation or a perfectly styled reference list, they’ve got the skills to make your paper academically spot-on.

This paper will discuss three theories of Lifespan Development that may have improved our understanding of childhood development in terms of social, emotional and/ or cognitive development, and how these might be important to the field of counselling.

Three theorists will be discussed along with their relevant theories. Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory, Piaget’s Cognitive Development theory, Attachment Theory covering Mary Ainsworth’s ‘The Strange Situation.

Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

Erik Erikson (1902-1994)

Are Paper Services Legal?

Yes, completely! They’re a valid tool for getting sample papers to boost your own writing skills, and there’s nothing shady about that. Use them right—like a study guide or a model to learn from—and they’re a smart, ethical way to level up your grades without breaking any rules.

Erikson studied under Sigmund Freud and therefore is what’s known as a Neo-Freudian. However, Erikson would come to argue Freud’s theories and had a different view on his psychoanalytical/psychosexual theories. (Shaffer, 2007)

There are two important differences in Erikson’s approach to Lifespan Development. Erikson believed that children are far more involved in their own development and adapt to their surrounding environment accordingly. In Erikson’s theory, the ego is much more than a go-between, between the ID and the Superego. (Shaffer, 2007) The second difference in Erikson’s theory is that Erikson did not focus as much on sexual urges instead focused on the cultural influences that mould a human’s Lifespan Development.(Shaffer, 2007)

Erikson’s theory was based around eight psychosocial stages which he referred to as crises. In his theory personality is based around how one successfully navigates each stage in order to deal with the next stage of their lives. For the purpose of this paper, it is important to highlight the stages Erikson proposed.

How Much for a Paper?

Prices start at $10 per page for undergrad work and go up to $21 for advanced levels, depending on urgency and any extras you toss in. Deadlines range from a lightning-fast 3 hours to a chill 14 days—plenty of wiggle room there! Plus, if you’re ordering big, you’ll snag 5-10% off, making it easier on your wallet while still getting top-notch quality.

A table of Erikson’s ‘Psychosocial Stages’

Approximate Age

Psychosocial Stage

Birth to 1 Year

Will Anyone Find Out I Used You?

Nope—your secret’s locked down tight. We encrypt all your data with top-tier security, and every paper’s crafted fresh just for you, run through originality checks to prove it’s one-of-a-kind. No one—professors, classmates, or anyone—will ever know you teamed up with us, guaranteed.

Basic Trust Vs Mistrust

1 to 3 Years

Autonomy Vs Shame and Doubt

3 to 6 Years

Do You Rely on AI?

Not even a little—our writers are real-deal experts with degrees, crafting every paper by hand with care and know-how. No AI shortcuts here; it’s all human skill, backed by thorough research and double-checked for uniqueness. You’re getting authentic work that stands out for all the right reasons.

Initiative Vs Guilt

6 to 12 Years

Industry Vs Inferiority

12 to 20 Years

Why Are You Top for Research Papers?

Our writers are Ph.D.-level pros who live for nailing the details—think deep research and razor-sharp arguments. We pair that with top plagiarism tools, free revisions to tweak anything you need, and fast turnarounds that don’t skimp on quality. Your research paper won’t just shine—it’ll set the bar.

Identity Vs Role Confusion

20 to 40 Years

Intimacy Vs Isolation

40 to 65 Years

Who’s Behind My Essays?

You’re in good hands with degree-holding pros—many rocking Master’s or higher—who’ve crushed our tough vetting tests in writing and their fields. They’re your partners in this, hitting tight deadlines and academic standards with ease, all while tailoring every essay to your exact needs. No matter the topic, they’ve got the chops to make it stellar.

Generativity Vs Stagnation

Old Age

Integrity Vs Despair

 

Is My Paper Original?

100%—we promise! Every paper’s written fresh from scratch—no AI, no copying—just solid research and proper citations from our expert writers. You can even request a plagiarism report to see it’s 95%+ unique, giving you total confidence it’s submission-ready and one-of-a-kind.

1: Basic Trust Vs Mistrust

This stage is experienced in the first year of life. A basic sense of trust is required at this stage for the infant to feel that the world is a safe and pleasant place to live (Santrock, 2004)

2: Autonomy Vs Shame and Doubt

This stage is experienced in infancy and young toddlerhood. From the trust felt from their caregivers, children begin to exercise will and gain a sense of independence in this stage. If children are punished too severely at this stage they develop a sense of shame and doubt.(Shaffer, 2007, 2007, 2007)

Can You Do Any Citation Style?

Yep—APA, Turabian, IEEE, Chicago, MLA, whatever you throw at us! Our writers nail every detail of your chosen style, matching your guidelines down to the last comma and period. It’s all about making sure your paper fits academic expectations perfectly, no sweat.

3: Initiative Vs Guilt

This stage is experienced in the preschool years. Children develop responsibility for their own being, from which initiative grows. A sense of guilt may develop if the child is made to feel anxious or behaves irresponsibly.(Shaffer, 2007)

4: Industry Vs Inferiority

This stage is experienced in the elementary school years. The initiative achieved in the third stage of development introduces the child to a wealth of new experiences. The child will compare him/she to his/her peers. Children focus their energy on mastering knowledge and intellectual skills.(Santrock, 2004)

Can I Adjust Instructions Later?

Absolutely—life happens, and we’re flexible! Chat with your writer anytime through our system to update details, tweak the focus, or add new requirements, and they’ll pivot fast to keep your paper on point. It’s all about making sure the final draft is exactly what you need, no stress involved.

5: Identity Role Vs Confusion

This stage is experienced during adolescence. Adolescents begin to gain a sense of themselves, what they want out of life, and the value system they will follow. Or they become confused about what direction they will take in life.(Santrock, 2004)

6: Intimacy Vs Isolation

This stage is experienced in early adulthood. Individuals in this stage will develop intimate relationships with others. If intimacy is not achieved in this stage it will result in isolation.(Shaffer, 2007)

How Do I Get Started?

It’s super easy—order online with a few clicks, then track progress with drafts as your writer works their magic. Once it’s done, download it from your account, give it a once-over, and release payment only when you’re thrilled with the result. It’s fast, affordable, and built with students like you in mind!

7:  Generativity Vs Stagnation

This stage is experienced in middle adulthood. The main purpose is to help the younger generation in their development. The opposite of generativity is the stagnation which occurs if the individual fails to help the younger generation in their development. (Shaffer, 2007)

8: Integrity Vs Despair

This stage is experienced in late adulthood. The individual reflects on their life, either figuring that they lead a meaningful life without regret, or figuring that their life was not well spent. (Santrock, 2004)

How Fast for Rush Jobs?

We can crank out a killer paper in 24 hours—quality locked in, no shortcuts. Just set your deadline when you order, and our pros will hustle to deliver, even if you’re racing the clock. Perfect for those last-minute crunches without compromising on the good stuff.

Note that Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development differed from Freud’s theories of psychosexual development in that it did not end at adolescence and young adulthood.

Erikson believed that the issues faced by young adolescents differed from parents who are raising children or by the elderly who are dealing with retirement and mortality. (Sheldon & Kasser. 2001)

Importance of psychosocial theory to the field of counselling

Erikson’s contribution to the development of psychosocial theory highlights the importance of early experiences in development. (Santrock, 2004) This is relevant to the field of counselling in that in order to understand a person’s development one may have to evaluate their childhood experiences. Personality may also be understood better if it is evaluated through the development of the individual (Santrock, 2004). The unconscious mind needs to be evaluated along with the conscious mind (Erikson) Erikson focused on the identity crisis facing adolescents (Shaffer, 2007), this may play an important role in understanding the issues facing young adults in the appropriate age range.

It is important to note in this paper that Erikson’s theory comes in for some criticism and despite contributions to the field; it is argued that the propositions are difficult to assess. (Shaffer, 2007) A large amount of data from the studies came from Erikson’s subject’s reconstruction of past life events which are hard to confirm or falsify from a research perspective (Santrock, 2004). More recent studies, for example, a research carried out by Phillip Meilman (1979) measuring the identity status of males in the 12-24 age range found that 12-18-year-olds identities were already in formation. Meilman (1979) found that it wasn’t until the age of 21 and beyond that identities were fully formed. This would highlight the fact that Erikson’s age ranges for identity development were highly optimistic. The mentioned criticisms of Erikson’s theory are important in evaluating the relevance of the psychosocial theory in today’s field of counselling.

Can You Handle Complex Subjects?

For sure! Our writers with advanced degrees dive into any topic—think quantum physics or medieval lit—with deep research and clear, sharp writing. They’ll tailor it to your academic level, ensuring it’s thorough yet easy to follow, no matter how tricky the subject gets.

Piaget’s theory of Cognitive Development

 

Jean Piaget (1896-1980)

 

 “Intelligence is a particular instance of biological adaptation…” The Origin of Intelligence in the Child (1936)

How Do You Meet Prof Standards?

We stick to your rubric like glue—nailing the structure, depth, and tone your professor wants—then polish it with edits for that extra shine. Our writers know what profs look for, and we double-check every detail to make sure it’s submission-ready and grade-worthy.

Piaget’s contribution to the theories of cognitive development is one of the most influential and played a major role in developments in the field. (Beilin, 1992) Piaget published his first biology paper at the age of ten but later developed a keen interest in epistemology or the study of knowledge. He worked with Alfred Binet in Paris who was developing a standardized IQ test for children. It was here that Piaget became interested in how children think. –Piaget proposed that children are active participants in their acquisition of knowledge rather than passive, children are active in finding knowledge from various sources (Hetherington, 2006)

Piaget proposed four main periods in a child’s cognitive development.

Age Range *

Stage

What’s Your Editing Like?

Send us your draft and tell us your goals—we’ll refine it, tightening arguments and boosting clarity while keeping your unique voice intact. Our editors work fast, delivering pro-level results that make your paper pop, whether it’s a light touch-up or a deeper rework.

0-2

Sensorimotor

2-7

Preoperational

7-11

Can You Pick My Topic?

Yes—we’ve got your back! We’ll brainstorm fresh, workable ideas tailored to your assignment, picking ones that spark interest and fit the scope. You choose the winner, and we’ll turn it into a standout paper that’s all yours.

Concrete Operational

11 –

Formal Operational

*Approximate Age Range

 

Sensorimotor (0-2)

In Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, the sensorimotor stage corresponds to the period of infancy, from birth to approximately two years. At the beginning of the stage, a child possesses innate reflexes with which to operate. At the end of the period, the infant has developed sensorimotor patterns and is at the early development of a primitive set of symbols   (Santrock, 2004) It is important to note that Object Permanence is developed during this period. Object permanence is the ability to form mental representations of objects that are not visible or actions that are not occurring.

Do You Do Quick Revisions?

Yep—need changes fast? We’ll jump on your paper and polish it up in hours, fixing whatever needs tweaking so it’s ready to submit with zero stress. Just let us know what’s off, and we’ll make it right, pronto.

Preoperational (2-7)

The preoperational period of cognitive development is characterized by the child’s development of symbolic function, the ability to represent their world with symbols such as words, images and gestures (Hetherington, 2006). Conservation is the Piagetian term for the understanding that a child obtains that physical quantities remain the same despite changes in their shape or appearance. The child must understand that despite objects change in appearance or shape the properties of the object remain the same, for example, mass, length of volume (Hetherington, 2006) Conservation is absent during this stage.

Concrete Operational (7-11)

During this stage of a child’s Cognitive Development cognitive operations are rapidly acquired and children begin to apply new skills in and around the thinking of objects and events which they have experienced. (Shaffer, 2007, 2007) Children have an increased understanding of reversibility and a greater ability to focus on one dimension of a problem at a time. Conservation is fully developed during the stage and children can easily solve problems of, for example, mass height, volume and the area of objects despite changes in their shape or appearance. Children also obtain the ability to classify objects during the concrete operational phase. During the preoperational stage, a child will gradually become able to classify objects on a consistent basis, for example, characteristics such as size, shape or colour. In the concrete operational stage, the child can sort objects in more complicated classifications. An example of this would be identifying different shades of colours. (Hetherington, 2006)

Formal Operational (11-)

Piaget proposed that the thinking in the concrete operational stage of cognitive development is limited as children can only apply operational schemes to objects, situations, or events which are real or imaginable (Shaffer, 2007) The most significant change in the formal operational stage is the application of hypothesis testing and the entertainment that there are many possible solutions to problems which a child needs to solve. The child also develops the ability to actually think about thinking (Kuhn & Franklin 2006). Children during this stage can also begin to think about social problems and philosophical issues such as truth and justice. (Hetherington, 2006)

Can You Outline First?

Sure thing! We’ll whip up a clear outline to map out your paper’s flow—key points, structure, all of it—so you can sign off before we dive in. It’s a handy way to keep everything aligned with your vision from the start.

Importance to the field of Counselling

Piaget was somewhat of a renegade and was quite innovative in that he studied cognition, or thinking. He believed that IQ tests only told us what individuals know rather than what they think. (Shaffer, 2007) Piaget’s theory of cognitive development has had an enormous impact in the field of study of children’s development of cognitive skills (Hetherington, 2006) His theory emphasizes the importance of the individuals construction of thinking and understanding of objects and the world around them (Santrock, 2004) Piaget’s theory has also had a great influence on education. Educational programmes are based on the idea that children do not think like adults and are therefore a more hands-on approach, developed around the concept of how children learn in their environment (Shaffer, 2007)

Piaget’s theory has been criticised by researchers who believed that he somewhat underestimated the ability of children attending schools. Children showed a much stronger ability to solve problems when presented with tasks that are more familiar which allowed them to show their competencies (Bjorklund, 2005)

Time magazine hailed Piaget as one of the greatest minds of the century at the turn of the millennium (Papert 1999) In examining the Handbook of Child Psychology editions it is revealed that Piaget is referenced the most within the handbook. His work continues to nourish discussion and experimentation in the field. (Bond & Tryphon 2007).

Attachment Theory

Attachment: “A strong emotional bond that forms between infant and caregiver in the second half of a child’s first year” (Hetherington, 2006)

It takes some time for an infant to develop an attachment to a parent or caregiver. A number of theories have been proposed in order to explain why and how infants become attached to those around them (Shaffer, 2007)

For the purpose of this paper, we will now look at some of the theories proposed to explain attachment in infants.

Can You Add Data or Graphs?

Absolutely—we’ll weave in sharp analysis or eye-catching visuals like stats and charts to level up your paper. Whether it’s crunching numbers or designing a graph, our writers make it professional and impactful, tailored to your topic.

John Bowlby

(1907-1990)

One of the most significant applications of theory to the ethological view of human development was John Bowlby’s theory of attachment. Bowlby argued that a child’s attachment to a caregiver in the first year plays an important role in the life span. (Santrock, 2004)

One of his most notable works was the study of juvenile thieves which was his first published work entitled “Forty Four Juvenile Thieves”

This study and its finding will now be outlined.

Aim and Procedure: Bowlby’s aim for this study was to determine if there is a correlation between parental separation in infancy and juvenile delinquency. Bowlby studied a group of 44 juvenile thieves at Canonbury Clinic in which he was working. He worked with a control group of 44 adolescents “who though emotionally disturbed” did not steal.

Findings: Of the 14 thieves who were studied Bowlby classified 14 of the thieves as “affectionless Characters” in comparison with none in the control group. Within the 44 thieves group, 17 had had a separation from their mothers before the age of five, in comparison; only two in the control group had been separated from their mothers.

Conclusion: From his study of maternal deprivation in infancy, Bowlby concluded that there is a correlation between separation from a mother in infancy and subsequent criminal behaviour in adolescence.

Strengths and Weaknesses: The study itself suggests that there is a correlation between maternal deprivation and adolescent delinquency. This suggests that there may be merit in further research in the field.

A criticism of the study is that Bowlby relies on recollections of and the memories of the participants which may not be accurate. Bowlby developed and carried out the study himself which may have lead to experimenter bias.

How Do You Manage Big Projects?

We tackle each chunk with precision, keeping quality consistent and deadlines on track from start to finish. Whether it’s a dissertation or a multi-part essay, we stay in sync with you, delivering top-notch work every step of the way.

 

Mary Ainsworth

(1913-1999)

Mary Ainsworth was a developmental psychologist who became widely known for her work in the field of attachment theory. Her most outstanding work was the design of a procedure called ‘The Strange Situation”, the aim of which was to observe the emotional attachment between a child and its primary caregiver.

The Strange Situation

Do You Follow Global Academic Rules?

Yes—we’ve got it down! Our writers switch seamlessly between UK, US, Australian, or any other standards, matching your school’s exact expectations. Your paper will feel native to your system, polished and ready for wherever you’re studying.

Ainsworth’s observation of infants at approximately 1-year-old was valuable. (Ainsworth, 1973, Waters, Vaughn, Posada, & Cibdi Ikemura 1995) The remarkable differences in the behaviour of the infants became known as the Strange Situation. The procedure of this observation was a carefully worked out scenario where a mother twice separates from her child and leaves her baby alone with a stranger, then twice reunites with the child.(Hetherington) For the purpose of this paper, we will outline the procedure in the below table.

Table 1.1

Episode

Persons Present

Duration of Episode

What is a progressive delivery and how does it work?

Progressive delivery is a cool option where we send your paper in chunks—perfect for big projects like theses or dissertations. You can even pay for it in installments. It’s just 10% extra on your order price, but the perks are worth it. You’ll stay in closer touch with your writer and can give feedback on each part before they move to the next. That way, you’re in the driver’s seat, making sure everything lines up with what you need. It saves time too—your writer can tweak things based on your notes without having to redo huge sections later.

Description of Setting

1

Caregiver, baby, and observer

30 Seconds

I received some comments from my teacher. Can you help me with them?

Absolutely! If your teacher’s got feedback, you can request a free revision within 7 days of approving your paper—just hit the revision request button on your personal order page. Want a different writer to take a crack at it? You can ask for that too, though we might need an extra 12 hours to line someone up. After that 7-day window, free revisions wrap up, but you can still go for a paid minor or major revision (details are on your order page). What if I’m not satisfied with my order? If your paper needs some tweaks, you’ve got that free 7-day revision window after approval—just use the “Revision” button on your page. Once those 7 days are up, paid revision options kick in, and the cost depends on how much needs fixing. Chat with our support team to figure out the best way forward. If you feel the writer missed the mark on your instructions and the quality’s off, let us know—we’ll dig in and sort it out. If revisions don’t cut it, you can ask for a refund. Our dispute team will look into it and figure out what we can offer. Check out our money-back guarantee page for the full scoop.

Observer introduces caregiver and baby to experimental room, (Room contains many appealing toys scattered about)

2

Caregiver and baby

3 Minutes

The caregiver is nonparticipant while baby explores: if necessary, play is stimulated after 2 minutes

3

Stranger, Caregiver and baby

3 Minutes

Stranger enters. First Minute: Stranger is Silent. Second Minute: Stranger Converses with Caregiver. Third Minute: Stranger approaches baby. After 3 minutes caregiver leaves unobtrusively.

4

Stranger and Baby

3 minutes or Less

First Separation Episode. Stranger’s behaviour geared is geared to that of the baby

5

Caregiver and Baby

3 minutes or more

First reunion episode. Caregiver greets and/ or comforts baby, then tries to settle baby again in play. The caregiver then leaves saying “ bye bye”

6

Baby alone

3 Minutes or Less

Second Seperation episode

7

Stranger and Baby

3 minutes or less

Continuation of second separation. Stranger enters and gears behaviour to that of the baby.

8

Caregiver and baby

3 minutes

Second reunion episode. Caregiver enters, greets baby, then picks baby up. Meanwhile stranger leaves unobstrusively.

 Table Santrock pg 218

From this experiment Ainsworth was able to establish a classification of attachment.

Secure Attachment

The infant will utilise the caregiver as a secure base to explore the environment. Ainsworth believes that a secure attachment in early life leads to an important foundation for development in later life. (Santrock)

Insecure Avoident

An infant shows and insecurity by avoiding the mother. There is little interaction with the primary caregiver and the infant will also often show distress by crying.

Insecure Resistant

The infant will cling to the mother and then in turn fight or reject the closeness. Infants will cling to the caregiver and are reluctant to explore the playroom.

 

 

Insecure Disorganized

Infants show insecure attachment by being disorganized and disorientated. Infants will often be dazed and confused. To be classified as insecure disorganized strong evidence of avoidance and resistance must be present.

Importance to the field of Counselling

Researchers have found that for in some cases early attachment can have an effect on later functioning (Shneider, Atkinson, & Tardif, 2001; Shroufe, Egeland & Carlson 1999), while for other children there is little continuity (Thompson, 2000) This may be an important element to counselling in that understanding early functioning may lead to a greater understanding of adult functioning. The Attachment theory may also have relevance in understanding a child’s development in terms of the family in a child therapy setting. The family set-up is the social system which moulds the child’s development. (Woolfe) Understanding the relationship the child has with its primary caregivers is very relevant in the child therapy arena.Expand

However there have also been criticisms of Attachment Theory. Some researchers believe that too much emphasis has been placed on the relationship between a child and it’s caregivers in infancy (Jerome Kagan, 1987, 2000) believes that infants are highly adaptive and resilient and are evolutionarily equipped for positive development regardless of the relationship with the primary caregiver. Researchers have also found that there are cultural differences in attachment, for example Japanese infants often show different patterns of attachment to American infants (Santrock)

Conclusion

This paper has reviewed three theories which may be important to the field of counselling. Erik Erikson’s psychosocial theory, Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development theory. Finally Mary Ainsworth’s contribution to Attachment Theory. The theories relevance to the field of counselling has been proposed. Further research may be needed to strengthen the proposed relevance of the theories.

Bibliography

  • Beilin, H. (1992) Piaget’s enduring contribution to developmental psychology. Developmental Psychology, 28, 191-204
  • Bond, T, Tryphon, A. (2007) Piaget’s Legacy as Reflected in the Handbook of Child Psychology (1998 Edition)
  • Hetherington E. Parke R. Gauvain M. and Locke V. O. (2006) Child Psychology A Contemperary Viewpoint  6th EditionNew York: McGraw Hill
  • Kuhn, D. & Franklin, S. (2006). The second decade: What develops and how. Handbook of Child Psychology (6th ed., pp. 953-993), New York: Wiley.
  • Meilman P. W. (1979) Cross-Sectional age changes in ego identity status during adolescence. Deveopmental Psychology , 15, 230-231
  • Piaget J. (1930) The Origin of Intelligence in the Child  Routledge
  • Santrock J. W. (2004) Life-Span Development. 9th EditionDallas Texas: Mcgraw Hill
  • Shaffer, 2007, 2007 D. R. and Kipp K. (2007) Developmental Psychology: Childhood & Adolescence 7th Edition Belmont CA: Thomson.
  • Sheldon K. M. & Kasser, T. (2001) Getting Older, Getting Better. Personal Strivings and psychological Maturity across the life span. Developmental Psychology, 2001, Vol 37(4) pp. 491-501
  • Woolfe  R. Dryden W. and Strawbridge S. (2003) Handbook of Counselling Psychology. 2nd Edition. London: Sage.

Tags: Assessment task assignment help, Cheap essay writer Australia, Research Essay Help UK, Science Homework Assignment Help

Order|Paper Discounts

Why Choose Essay Bishops?

You Want The Best Grades and That’s What We Deliver

Top Essay Writers

Our top essay writers are handpicked for their degree qualification, talent and freelance know-how. Each one brings deep expertise in their chosen subjects and a solid track record in academic writing.

Affordable Prices

We offer the lowest possible pricing for each research paper while still providing the best writers;no compromise on quality. Our costs are fair and reasonable to college students compared to other custom writing services.

100% Plagiarism-Free

You’ll never get a paper from us with plagiarism or that robotic AI feel. We carefully research, write, cite and check every final draft before sending it your way.