Looking for a similar answer, essay, or assessment help services?

Simply fill out the order form with your paper’s instructions in a few easy steps. This quick process ensures you’ll be matched with an expert writer who
Can meet your papers' specific grading rubric needs. Find the best write my essay assistance for your assignments- Affordable, plagiarism-free, and on time!

Posted: July 18th, 2022

Reliability-based Design of Rainwater Harvesting Systems

An Investigation into the Reliability-based Design of Rainwater Harvesting Systems in the UK under Current and Future Climatic Conditions

Abstract

Which Citation Styles Can You Handle?

We get a lot of “Can you do MLA or APA?”—and yes, we can! Our writers ace every style—APA, MLA, Turabian, you name it. Tell us your preference, and we’ll format it flawlessly.

This dissertation investigates the relationship between key rainwater harvesting (RWH) variables and the resulting system reliability these provide, before exploring how this relation might be affected by climate change. As such, graphs specific to various UK regions are produced, linking the local precipitation (rainfall) regime, domestic water demand, catchment area, storage capacity and system reliability for both the present-day and 2080 forecasted climate. For the purposes of demonstration, the study focuses on two UK regions: North Scotland (NS), and South West England and Wales (SWEaW).

The use of rainwater harvesting systems (RWHS) in the UK was chosen as a field of study since although numerous studies have proved their effectiveness in various geographical contexts, the UK has failed to embrace this practice on a wide scale. More importantly, current UK guidelines do not consider reliability as a design parameter and ignore the potential impact of climate change on system performance. Consequently, when sizing their storage tanks as per UK guidelines, residents wishing to install RWHS do not know what reliability the recommended storage size will provide today or in the future.

To produce the reliability graphs artificial monthly rainfall series produced by a stochastic (random but statistically describable by a probability distribution) rainfall generator were used to simulate RWHS behaviour and thereby calculate reliability. This process was repeated for many possible parameter combinations and results were plotted. To model future reliability, the artificial rainfall series were modified to reflect predicted changes in rainfall as a result of climate change. These modified precipitation series were then once again used in simulations to obtain revised reliability values. Thereafter, differences in various reliability definitions and rainfall series types were compared and analysed to determine which produced the most accurate and meaningful results. Finally, a case study was presented to demonstrate how the graphs produced could be used for reliability assessment or reliability based design.

Results showed that the use of artificially generated monthly rainfall series accurately simulated reliability on a monthly basis, but that the use of daily simulation intervals could further improve simulation accuracy. The wide range in predicted changes in rainfall meant that simulated future reliabilities were also marked by a high degree of uncertainty. However, based on central climate change estimates, reliability was expected to decrease in most cases. Nevertheless, the graphs proved that RWHS can be highly effective.

Are Writing Services Legal?

Totally! They’re a legit resource for sample papers to guide your work. Use them to learn structure, boost skills, and ace your grades—ethical and within the rules.

These graphs could be used for two purposes: assessment or design. For the former, the graphs could be incorporated into the UK guidelines to allow designers to determine the reliability achieved by the recommended storage capacity. Their second purpose could be for designer to identify possible parameter combinations required to achieve a desired level of present-day or future reliability. In an attempt to try promote RWHS in the UK, it is hoped that these graphs will facilitate their design and emphasize their potential effectiveness.

Table of Contents

1 List of Figures

What’s the Price for a Paper?

Starts at $10/page for undergrad, up to $21 for pro-level. Deadlines (3 hours to 14 days) and add-ons like VIP support adjust the cost. Discounts kick in at $500+—save more with big orders!

2 List of Tables

3 Introduction

3.1 RWHS and their History

3.2 Sizing of Rainwater Harvesting Storage Tanks

Is My Privacy Protected?

100%! We encrypt everything—your details stay secret. Papers are custom, original, and yours alone, so no one will ever know you used us.

3.3 Objectives and Scope

3.4 Overview of Dissertation Structure

4 Literature Review

4.1 Significance of Domestic RWHS

Is AI Involved in Writing?

Nope—all human, all the time. Our writers are pros with real degrees, crafting unique papers with expertise AI can’t replicate, checked for originality.

4.1.1 Growing Importance and Benefits

4.1.2 Previous Studies showing Impact

4.2 Studies on the Sizing of RWHS

4.2.1 Scope, Purpose and Output

Why Are You the Best for Research?

Our writers are degree-holding pros who tackle any topic with skill. We ensure quality with top tools and offer revisions—perfect papers, even under pressure.

4.2.2 Parameters Considered

4.2.3 Assessment of Performance

4.2.4 Methodology

4.2.5 Rainfall Series

Who Writes My Assignments?

Experts with degrees—many rocking Master’s or higher—who’ve crushed our rigorous tests in their fields and academic writing. They’re student-savvy pros, ready to nail your essay with precision, blending teamwork with you to match your vision perfectly. Whether it’s a tricky topic or a tight deadline, they’ve got the skills to make it shine.

4.3 Stochastic rainfall generators

4.3.1 Overview

4.3.2 Method of Fragments

4.4 RWH in the UK:

Will My Paper Be Unique?

Guaranteed—100%! We write every piece from scratch—no AI, no copying—just fresh, well-researched work with proper citations, crafted by real experts. You can grab a plagiarism report to see it’s 95%+ original, giving you total peace of mind it’s one-of-a-kind and ready to impress.

4.4.1 Importance & Use

4.4.2 UK Sizing Guidelines

4.4.3 UK RWH Parameters

4.5 Climate Change Impact on Precipitation

Can You Use Any Citation Format?

Yep—APA, Chicago, Harvard, MLA, Turabian, you name it! Our writers customize every detail to fit your assignment’s needs, ensuring it meets academic standards down to the last footnote or bibliography entry. They’re pros at making your paper look sharp and compliant, no matter the style guide.

5 Methodology

5.1 Overview and Rationale of Approach

5.2 Defining the Hydrological Year

5.3 Fitting Probability Density Functions to Annual Rainfalls

Can I Change My Order Details?

For sure—you’re not locked in! Chat with your writer anytime through our handy system to update instructions, tweak the focus, or toss in new specifics, and they’ll adjust on the fly, even if they’re mid-draft. It’s all about keeping your paper exactly how you want it, hassle-free.

5.4 Generating Monthly Rainfall Series

5.5 Calculating Current Reliability

5.6 Incorporating Effects of Climate Change

6 Discussion and Analysis of Results

How Do I Order a Paper?

It’s a breeze—submit your order online with a few clicks, then track progress with drafts as your writer brings it to life. Once it’s ready, download it from your account, review it, and release payment only when you’re totally satisfied—easy, affordable help whenever you need it. Plus, you can reach out to support 24/7 if you’ve got questions along the way!

6.1 Accuracy of Stochastic Rainfall Series

6.1.1 Accuracy of Annual Stochastic Rainfall Series

6.1.2 Accuracy of Monthly Stochastic Rainfall Series

6.2 Method of Fragments: Impact of Subset Size

How Quick Can You Write?

Need it fast? We can whip up a top-quality paper in 24 hours—fully researched and polished, no corners cut. Just pick your deadline when you order, and we’ll hustle to make it happen, even for those nail-biting, last-minute turnarounds you didn’t see coming.

6.3 Assessment of Reliability

6.3.1 Comparison of Volumetric and Temporal Reliability

6.3.2 Comparison of Monthly and Daily Reliability

6.3.3 Comparison of Historic and Generated Reliability

6.4 Reliability in 2080

Can You Handle Tough Topics?

Absolutely—bring it on! Our writers, many with advanced degrees like Master’s or PhDs, thrive on challenges and dive deep into any subject, from obscure history to cutting-edge science. They’ll craft a standout paper with thorough research and clear writing, tailored to wow your professor.

6.4.1 Dry Scenario

6.4.2 Wet Scenario

6.4.3 Median Scenario

7 Case Study

7.1 Overview

How Do You Match Professor Expectations?

We follow your rubric to a T—structure, evidence, tone. Editors refine it, ensuring it’s polished and ready to impress your prof.

7.2 Simplified Approach

7.3 Intermediate Approach

7.4 Corresponding Reliabilities and Discussion

8 Conclusion

How Do You Edit My Work?

Send us your draft and goals—our editors enhance clarity, fix errors, and keep your style. You’ll get a pro-level paper fast.

8.1 Further Work

8.2 Closing Comments

9 Bibliography

1         List of Figures

Figure 1: Dimensionless Design Curves (Fewkes, 1999)…………………………….

Figure 2: Storage Sizing Contour Map (Liaw & Tsai, 2004)…………………………..

Can You Brainstorm Topics?

Yep! We’ll suggest ideas tailored to your field—engaging and manageable. Pick one, and we’ll build it into a killer paper.

Figure 3: Simplistic Approach to sizing RWHS (Gould 1999)………………………….

Figure 4: UK weather regions (Legg, 2017)………………………………………

Figure 5: UK precipitation change predictions (Defra, 2009)…………………………..

Figure 6: Methodology flowchart……………………………………………..

Figure 7: Bar chart of correlation values between consecutive monthly rainfall values for NS……

Figure 9: Annual precipitation histogram and fitted Normal probability density function for NS…..

Figure 9: Mass balance algorithm flowchart………………………………………

Do You Offer Fast Edits?

Yes! Need a quick fix? Our editors can polish your paper in hours—perfect for tight deadlines and top grades.

Figure 11: Percentage change in monthly precipitation for 2080 dry, median and wet projections in SWEaW

Figure 12: Mean monthly precipitation values for current and future stochastic rainfall series in SWEaW

Figure 13: Empirical and theoretical cumulative probability functions for annual rainfall in SWEaW.

Figure 14: Sample and theoretical quantiles of annual rainfall in SWEaW…………………

Figure 15: Boxplot of generated and historical monthly precipitation for SWEaW……………

Figure 16: Scatter plot of monthly rainfall for historical and generated rainfall series (using 5% of sets of fragments) in NS.

Can You Start With an Outline?

Sure! We’ll sketch an outline for your approval first, ensuring the paper’s direction is spot-on before we write.

Figure 17: Scatter plot of monthly rainfall for historical and generated rainfall series (using 100% of sets of fragments) in NS.

Figure 18: Violin plot of monthly rainfall for historical and generated rainfall series (using 5% of sets of fragments) in NS.

Figure 19: Violin plot of monthly rainfall for historical and generated rainfall series (using 100% of sets of fragments) in NS.

Figure 20: Volumetric and temporal reliabilities using generated monthly rainfall series for SWEaW

Figure 21: Daily and monthly reliabilities using historic rainfall series for SWEaW……………

Figure 22: Generated and historic monthly reliabilities for SWEaW……………………..

Figure 23: Enlargement of Figure 4.3.3-1……………………………………….

Figure 24: Current and future dry-scenario reliabilities for SWEaW……………………..

Can You Add Charts or Stats?

Definitely! Our writers can include data analysis or visuals—charts, graphs—making your paper sharp and evidence-rich.

Figure 25: Current and future wet-scenario reliabilities for SWEaW……………………..

Figure 26: Current and future median-scenario reliabilities for SWEaW…………………..

Figure 27: Current and future median-scenario reliabilities for NS………………………

Figure 26: Annual average rainfall depths across the UK (BS 8515)…………………….

Figure 29: Simplified approach storage sizing graph for 4-person household (BS 8515)……….

Figure 30: Enlargement of graph depicting current and future monthly reliabilities for SWEaW….

Figure 31: Enlargement of graph depicting current monthly reliabilities for SWEaW………….

2         List of Tables

Table 1: Percentage changes in winter and summer rainfall for dry, median and wet scenario in SWEaW and NS

Table 2: Distribution goodness-of-fit tests to model annual rainfall in SWEaW……………..

Table 3: Recommended storage capacities as per intermediate approach (BS 8515)…………

What About Multi-Part Projects?

We’ve got it—each section delivered on time, cohesive and high-quality. We’ll manage the whole journey for you.

3         Introduction

3.1      RWHS and their History

Rainwater harvesting (RWH) is a process comprising the collection, distribution and use of rainwater (Basinger, et al., 2010). The collection can occur via any catchment area, such as a field on a large scale, or a roof on a domestic scale. Due to the non-uniform distribution of rainfall over time, tanks are usually installed so that rainwater may be stored and used when needed (Su, et al., 2009). The nature of the storage system also depends on its scale: dams are on the larger end of the spectrum, storing water for entire communities, whereas domestic storage tanks lie on the smaller end of the spectrum, storing water for only a few individuals or families. The use of the water varies across agricultural, industrial or residential sectors (Hanson & Vogel, 2014). On a domestic scale, rainwater harvesting systems (RWHS) may be used as a primary water source, but in developed countries they are mostly employed as a supplementary water supply for non-potable purposes such as toilet flushing, clothes washing or outdoor watering (Environment Agency, 2010).

An ancient practice, RWH has been employed for thousands of years by many civilisations, such as the ancient Greeks, Romans and Etruscans, for a variety of purposes (Boers & Asher, 1982). Its first application dates to 2000BC when it was used for agricultural irrigation in Jordan (Hanson & Vogel, 2014). During the Middle Ages, RWH was used in Venice as a means of providing domestic water supply (Basinger, et al., 2010). Hanson and Vogel (2014) argue that its popularity as a supplementary water source in urban and suburban areas has increased over the past decades, both in developing and developed countries. Unfortunately, when compared to other developed countries, the UK has failed to embrace and promote RWHS on a large scale (Berndtsson, 2004). Fewkes (2012) suggests this issue may become especially significant given the increasing stress on the UK’s centralised water supply infrastructures, especially in highly populated regions where water is already deemed to be scarce.

3.2      Sizing of Rainwater Harvesting Storage Tanks

The reliability of a RWHS is determined by the relationship between the inflow of water into the storage tank (dependent on the local precipitation regime and catchment area), the outflow of water from the storage tank (dependent on the demand), and the storage capacity, which limits the quantity of water that may be stored at any point in time (Basinger, et al., 2010). Thus, as Hanson and Vogel (2014) argue, “the most important and difficult design decision is how much storage capacity to build”, since this is usually the only parameter controlled by the designer, and often the most expensive part of the RWHS (Lee, et al., 2000). Furthermore, Imtaez et al. (2011) argue that the lack of information on optimal storage size, and on effectiveness of RWHS, are the key factors hindering the widespread use of RWHS.

Current UK guidelines for the design of RWHS are outlined in the 2009 British Standard 8515: Rainwater harvesting systems – Code of practice (BS). The BS proposes three methods for sizing tanks, of which only two are thoroughly explained. However, these two methods consider neither the seasonal variation of rainfall nor the reliability that certain storage sizes will provide. Thus, a house owner wishing to install a RWHS will not know with what reliability a given storage tank will meet his domestic non-potable water demand.

The BS also ignores the impact of climate change. Studies agree that the UK precipitation regime will develop greater variance: summers will become drier and winters will become wetter (Defra, 2009). Since the BSfails to address reliability in the first place the omission of this phenomenon is less evident. However, for a reliability-based storage sizing approach it seems intuitive that the change in one of the key parameters – the precipitation regime – should be considered.

Do You Adapt to International Rules?

Yes! UK, US, or Aussie standards—we’ll tailor your paper to fit your school’s norms perfectly.

3.3      Objectives and Scope

The first aim will be to produce regional graphs, relating the local precipitation regime, catchment area, daily demand, storage capacity and reliability. Two UK regions with differing rainfall regimes – Northern Scotland (NS) and South West England and Wales (SWEaW) – will be selected for the purposes of demonstration. Precipitation data for SWEaW and NS start in 1873 and 1931 respectively. To choose representative UK parameter values the scope of the study will be defined as follows. First, the study will be limited to the use of RWH for non-potable domestic purposes. As such, only demand for toilet flushing and clothes washing will be considered. Second, it will be assumed that rainfall will be collected via the roof area. Lastly, storage sizes similar to those available on the UK market will be considered.

The second objective will be to explore how the reliability of RWHS might change as a result of climate change. This will involve using the 2009 UK Climate Change Projections (Defra, 2009)to assess how rainfall might evolve under dry, median and wet future scenarios.

Finally, a case study will be presented. Two UK cities will be chosen, RWH storage sizes will be determined using BS guidelines, and the reliability graphs produced will be used to determine the reliability of the RWHS under present-day and future climate conditions. Furthermore, it will be demonstrated how the graphs may be used to identify parameter combinations to achieve a desired level or reliability.

3.4      Overview of Dissertation Structure

The dissertation is structured in the following manner. A literature review will first be undertaken, which will discuss the significance of RWHS, storage sizing methods, artificial rainfall generation and the impact of climate change on UK rainfall. Thereafter the methodology, which was used to generate synthetic rainfall, simulate RWHS behaviour, create the reliability plots, and modify these to account for climate change, will be presented. These results will then be analysed and discussed. The case study, mentioned above, will then ensue. Finally, the conclusion, recommendations for further study and final remarks will be shared.

4         Literature Review

4.1      Significance of Domestic RWHS

4.1.1      Growing Importance and Benefits

The increased global water demand (Fewkes, 2012) and effects of climate change have put water supply infrastructures around the world under stress (Imtaez, et al., 2011). This is especially evident in the many cities that have experienced large urban growth throughout the 20th century (Imtaez, et al., 2011).

What does a complex assignment mean?

If your assignment needs a writer with some niche know-how, we call it complex. For these, we tap into our pool of narrow-field specialists, who charge a bit more than our standard writers. That means we might add up to 20% to your original order price. Subjects like finance, architecture, engineering, IT, chemistry, physics, and a few others fall into this bucket—you’ll see a little note about it under the discipline field when you’re filling out the form. If you pick “Other” as your discipline, our support team will take a look too. If they think it’s tricky, that same 20% bump might apply. We’ll keep you in the loop either way!

To face the problem of increasing water scarcity, Postel (1992) argues that the most direct source of fresh water – rain – should not be ignored. RWHS can provide a sustainable alternative water supply (Basinger, et al., 2010), especially in cities, where the large impervious roof areas make them a viable option (Liaw & Tsai, 2004).

In developed regions, RWHS are primarily used as a secondary water supply for non-potable domestic uses (Su, et al., 2009). Nevertheless, they can help reduce stresses on urban water infrastructures (UWIs), by reducing urban potable water demand and storm water discharge. Thus, they help increase resilience of UWIs to drought, population growth, and floods (Basinger, et al., 2010). Furthermore, if engineered correctly, RWHS can have cost benefits and reduce energy consumption, making them an integral part of “green building” design (Guo & Baetz, 2007).

In less-developed or developing countries, RWHS can be even more important as they are often used as a major / primary water supply (Su, et al., 2009), due to their ability to improve household water access without government infrastructure support or economic aid. Furthermore, RWHS may have numerous advantages over centralised water treatment systems, such as increased reliability, simplicity, and lower cost (Cowden, et al., 2008).

4.1.2      Previous Studies showing Impact

Previous studies, conducted in various regions around the world, have concluded that RWH could considerably reduce the water currently having to be supplied by centralised water infrastructures.

Who is my writer? How can I communicate with him/her?

Our writers come from all corners of the globe, and we’re picky about who we bring on board. They’ve passed tough tests in English and their subject areas, and we’ve checked their IDs to confirm they’ve got a master’s or PhD. Plus, we run training sessions on formatting and academic writing to keep their skills sharp. You’ll get to chat with your writer through a handy messenger on your personal order page. We’ll shoot you an email when new messages pop up, but it’s a good idea to swing by your page now and then so you don’t miss anything important from them.

Ghisi et al. (2007) estimated that in Brazil, a rapidly developing country, RWHS could reduce residential potable water demand by as much as 48% in the south east of the country, and 100% in the north. In the developed world, the impact of RWHS can be just as significant: studies have deemed that in Germany, the use of RWHS for toilet flushing could reduce domestic water demand by 30-60% (Hermann & Schmida, 2000).

In Jordan and in Australia – arid regions where the problem of water scarcity is even more pronounced – estimates have concluded that RWHS could reduce potable water demand by up to 20% (Abdulla & Al-Shareef, 2009) and 60% (Coombes, et al., 2000) respectively.

Zhang et al. (2009) demonstrated that in megacities like Beijing, the use of RWHS for water flushing could reduce potable water demand by 25%. Even in NYC, one of the world’s most densely populated cities, studies have estimated that RWHS could meet up to 40% of the toilet flushing water demand (Basinger, et al., 2010).

4.2      Studies on the Sizing of RWHS

4.2.1      Scope, Purpose and Output

Many studies have been undertaken on RWHS, each varying in scope, purpose and output.

Since a key parameter influencing the performance of RWHS is the local weather regime (discussed in section 4.2.2), all studies are confined to a geographical area. Some aim to focus on particular cities, such as Taipei (Su, et al., 2009), NYC (Basinger, et al., 2010), Melbourne (Khastagir & Jayasuriya, 2010) or Nottingham (Fewkes, 1999), whilst other try to generalise across entire countries or regions such as Taiwan (Liaw & Tsai, 2004), USA (Hanson & Vogel, 2014) or Sub-Saharan West Africa (Cowden, et al., 2008).

Most of these studies focus on the use of RWHS for domestic purposes, but some consider their use in agriculture. Lee et al. (2000), for instance, investigated the use of RWHS for tea cultivation. Nevertheless, the aim for most RWHS studies is to provide a method enabling domestic users to size their system for desired levels of reliability.

The output of RWHS investigations usually fall into three categories: curves, contour maps, or equations. The first category includes graphs that try to establish the relationship between the various parameters considered. One example would be the dimensionless curves produced by Fewkes (1999), shown in Figure 1, relating catchment area, demand, rainfall level, system efficiency and storage volume. The second category comprises maps with contours showing the required storage capacity to achieve a given reliability. Figure 2 is an example of a map with contours indicating the required storage capacity (in

m3) for a volumetric reliability of 90%, a roof area of

100m2and a daily dwelling water demand of

150l(Liaw & Tsai, 2004). Although such maps are easy to understand and quick to read, the infinite number of parameter combinations and many graphs that would therefore need to be published make them impractical. The third category constitutes empirical regression formulae and analytically derived equations defining the relationship between various parameters. Equations

(1) and (2) are examples of such formulae, the former being derived analytically (Guo & Baetz, 2007), and the latter being derived via linear regression methods (Hanson & Vogel, 2014).

Re=AϕψAϕψ+ζGe-ζvff1-e-ζBAϕ-ψBG

Tags: Custom Homework Writing Help & Assignment Answers Service, Do My Homework Fast App, Help with all Assignment shark essay writing service, Homework assignments custom writings affordable services

Order|Paper Discounts

Why Choose Essay Bishops?

You Want The Best Grades and That’s What We Deliver

Top Essay Writers

Our top essay writers are handpicked for their degree qualification, talent and freelance know-how. Each one brings deep expertise in their chosen subjects and a solid track record in academic writing.

Affordable Prices

We offer the lowest possible pricing for each research paper while still providing the best writers;no compromise on quality. Our costs are fair and reasonable to college students compared to other custom writing services.

100% Plagiarism-Free

You’ll never get a paper from us with plagiarism or that robotic AI feel. We carefully research, write, cite and check every final draft before sending it your way.