The design is often made in a manner which allows the component to incorporate additional fitting or features.

Further, prefabricated columns may be in the form of a double or single-storey height. However, the method of connecting the lower column to the one above and foundation varies from one manufacturer to another (Collins n.d.). For example, the column-to-foundation connection can be through reinforcing the bars which protrude from the column ends and passing into sleeves that are then gout-filled. Alternatively, the columns can be connected to the foundation through a base plate linked to the column. Besides these two options, columns may set into preformed holes in the foundation blocks. Afterwards, the component is then grouted into position.

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On the other hand, column-to-column connections can be achieved by joining threaded rods using appropriate connectors (Collins n.d.). During the process, the cement mixture is consequently cast round to the column’s cross-sectional dimension resulting in thin stitches between the columns. Examples of Prefabricated Components ready for Prefab column-to-column Connection is shown in the following figures.

Figure 3.1 (a): Prefabricated Components for Colum-Column Connection (Behera 2013).

In most manufacturing designs, columns are provided with sufficient supports for the end of the cast beams. In addition to the support, some form of connections is also provided for column-beam continuity and moment connections (Collins n.d.). For interior columns, the connection may be through holes for the passage of the reinforcement bars from one beam to another (Collins n.d.). However, for edge columns, some form of sockets or brackets are necessary.

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Figure 3.1 (b): Precast Columns and Beams (Collins n.d.).

Figure 3.1 (c): Concrete Columns and Beams (Collins n.d.).

3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages

The use of prefabricated columns provides various benefits. For example, in nearly all types of building, from multi-storey to single-storey, precast columns reduce the construction time by increases the building speed. These advantages are mainly realized because ready columns are delivered to the site for erection (Suryakanta 2017). With prefabricated columns, the building process is often easy since the construction sections are ready and complete with cast-in components for fast connection to building elements, beams, and footings. Besides, using these components lowers the associated construction costs (Collins n.d.). Moreover, hollow-core concrete columns provide high strength because they are lighter compared to the solid types. Since prefabricated columns are made under a controlled manufacturing, the process offers more economical columns with strong reinforced concrete.

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Disadvantages

Although using precast columns offer various benefits in construction, there are different limitations associated with the application of these elements in the building. According to Suryakanta (2017), some of the shortcomings of using prefabricated columns include:

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1. Columns demand great care in handling to avoid damages which may results from mishandling.
2. Producing satisfactory connections between the prefabricated columns may be a challenge.
3. In some cases, handling precast columns may require the use of special machines for moving and lifting the prefabricated units.
4. There is often the risk of loss involved when ready columns break during transportation.

3.3 About Formwork Shutters

In concrete construction, Formwork is applied as moulds for structures whereby concrete is poured for subsequent hardening. A Formwork is a critical temporary structure elements in building (Mishra 2012). They provide the required support up the time the concrete member attains the desired strength necessary for supporting its weight and that of the load. Mainly, Formworks shutters can be made from different materials including aluminium, steel, and wood.

Figure 3.3 (a): Formwork/Shuttering (Mishra 2012).

Depending on the material used in making the formwork, different Formworks can be identified for shuttering in construction. However, for many manufacturers, wood is the preferred material for the manufacture of formwork shutters. Nevertheless, in making formworks from wood, it is necessary for the designer to consider factors such as the element size, beam and column stabilities, load duration, and moisture component. Additionally, the architect should focus on producing Formwork which is strong enough to withstand all types of live and dead loads (Mishra 2012). Besides, a proper Formwork should allow for the removal of different parts based on the desired sequence without damaging the concrete.

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Figure 3.3 (b): Wooden Formwork (Mishra 2012).

Plywood Formwork, the most commonly applied formwork type for shuttering, uses timber frames attached to Resin bonded plywood sheets to form up-panels of the required sizes. The application of panels of large sizes allows for the cost of labour required from fixing to removal the formwork to be significantly reduced. At the same time, with plywood shutters, the material reuse is considerably incorporated, and for this reason, the cost of Formwork is lower.  However, despite the fact that timber and plywood are the most commonly preferred for making formwork shutters for construction, these materials disadvantageous for various reasons.

For instance, with plywood as the primary material for making Formwork, the resulting component will often swell, shrink, and warp when subjected to water (Mishra 2012). However, the defect is mitigated by making the material surface impermeable to water.

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3.3.1 Quality Requirements for a Good Formwork or Shuttering

During shuttering, the fresh concrete is placed inside the formwork which, as already mentioned, could be made from plastic, wood, steel, aluminium, or other materials. In these applications, the formwork is used as a temporary structure for supporting the concrete by confining it within the formwork material (Suryakanta 2017). Therefore, the shuttering is left in position until the concrete has enough strength to support itself. However, to serve its purpose successfully, the formwork must meet certain quality standards. These requirements largely depend on the material used for shuttering as well as how the structure is made. However, in general, the three top objectives considered for the appropriate design of formwork include quality, safety, and economy (Allen and Iano 2011). Based on these factors as the primary modelling guidelines, the following are some of the necessary quality requirements for a proper shuttering/formwork.

1. The structure should be strong to withstand the weight or the pressure of any superimposed load and the concrete (Suryakanta 2017). In this way, the formwork must be designed with care since under loads may cause failure. Usually, the consideration of the overloads will have influences on the economy.
2. It is necessary for the designers to ensure that the structure is sufficiently rigid. The rigidity will allow the shuttering to retain the intended shape without causing unnecessary deformation (Mishra 2012). Accordingly, the formwork needs to be designed in such a way that in normal cases, the deflections do not exceed 1/900^th of the span.
3. It must be tightly constructed so that the structure does not allow concrete to break through the joints.
4. The enclosed inside the formwork should be consistent with the design size (Suryakanta 2017). Therefore, to meet this requirement, the shuttering should not warp, bulge, sink, or bend.
5. For the resulting concrete surface to possess good appearance, the inside of the formwork should be made smooth (Mishra 2012). In most construction processes, this quality specification is achieved through the application of crude oil on the internal surface of the formwork. An alternative to oil for the same use is soap solution which gives equally a smooth surface. Besides providing smoothening, applying soap solution or crude oil on the inside surface often facilitates the removal of the formwork.
6. The complete formwork must be made in a manner that will not cause injuries to the edge or surface of the concrete during disassembly. In short, the design should support easy removal.
7. Most importantly, it should be noted that the formwork will not be contributing to the finished structure (Mishra 2012). In this regard, formwork should be economical through cost reduction by proper use of materials, appropriate design, and construction.

3.3.2 Formwork/Shuttering Categories

There are different types of formwork depending on the classification criteria used. Nevertheless, the discussion considers three most common types. These include:

1. Conventional Formwork:

This class of Formwork/Shuttering is constructed on site out of moist-resistant particle-board, plywood, or timber. The traditional formwork is usually easy to produce. However, the plywood used mostly has a short lifespan and the structure is time-consuming. Despite these limitations, the conventional Formwork continues to be used where the cost of labour is relatively lower compared to the cost of purchasing reusable formwork (Forming America, LTD, 2016). Additionally, this formwork is the most flexible type, and therefore complicated sections may still use it even where other systems are in use.

2. Modern-Day Formwork

These are mainly modular formworks produced for efficiency and speed. In some applications, modern formworks are built for waste reduction and accuracy enhancement (Suryakanta 2017). Additionally, it is always common to find these types designed with safety features. The main classes in use are:

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1. The system column formwork
2. The table form (also called the flying form)
3. Horizontal panel
4. Tunnel form
5. Slip form

3. Prefabricated or Engineered Formworks

These are Formworks which are constructed out of prefabricated modules. They are built with a metal frame (often aluminium or steel) and covered with the concrete or application side using a material with the required surface (aluminium, timber, or steel) (Forming America, LTD 2016). Indeed, many constructors prefer prefabricated forms to the other two types because of their different advantages as discussed in the next section.

Now, depending on the material used, formworks are majorly of two categories. The first is the steel formwork which is made of either Tee Iron, Steel sheets, or Angle Iron (Forming America, LTD 2016). The second primary classification based on the material is the wooden formwork which includes Formworks made from Props, Ledgers, Planks battens, or Sheeting.

Figure 3.3.2 Formwork by Materials (Forming America, LTD 2016).

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3.3.3 Advantages and disadvantages of Prefabricated Formworks

Advantages

The prefabricated formworks are advantageous over the traditional timber types for various reasons. First, they speed up the construction process in addition to the fact that very little on-site skilled labour is required because they are constructed off-site (Forming America, LTD 2016). Secondly, the prefabricated formwork lowers the life-cycle costs and can bear major forces due to the indestructible nature of the frames (Forming America, LTD 2016). Moreover, like all prefabricated systems, prefab formworks are designed for heavy and light constructions and constructors can bid for any work; curved, straight, cut-up, or battered.

Disadvantages

Despite its many advantages, prefabricated formwork has various limitations as well. For example, in certain cases, the wood covering of prefabricated formwork may need regular replacement after some dozens of uses. Manufacturers, though, mitigate this limitation by using aluminium or steel for the covering (Forming America, LTD 2016). In this way, the prefabricated or engineered formworks can achieve almost two thousand uses depending on the applications and care during use.

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Another disadvantage of prefabricated formwork is that they deflect quite often during placement. This problem is mostly the result of the placing rate, which is usually too fast (Forming America, LTD 2016). So, for avoidance purpose, close supervision needs to be maintained, and the placing rate must be determined. Secondly, the prefabricated formwork systems tend to leave poor finishes at the joints where there is a framing member. This problem is a major challenge because the inside surface of a formwork needs to leave smooth surfaces at all points.

4.0 Concrete Precast Panels

4.1 About Concrete Precast Panels

Precast concretes are essential building materials made by casting concrete in form or reusable moulds. After casting, the materials are then subjected to a curing process in a controlled environment. From curing, concrete precast panels are then placed into large tracks which transport them to the construction site. Once delivered to the building location, the components are lifted into place (Allen and Iano 2011). Primarily, the concrete precast is distinct from the Standard Concrete. The latter is poured into forms which are unique to the site where they are then cured. Additionally, precast concretes are distinguished from precast stones through the use of a fine aggregate in the mixture. This procedure makes the final product to trace a naturally occurring stone or rock regarding its appearance.

The precast concrete products are often made in different shapes and sizes to fit a variety of applications and are employed within ranges of interior and exterior walls. The panels are compressed in stone and concrete resulting in a solid face or wall which is easy to manoeuvre (Allen and Iano 2011). Mainly, producing the engineered concrete in a precast plan or a controlled environment provides the opportunity for proper curing and close monitoring by plant workers.

Figure 4.1 Precast Concrete for Different Applications (a) Piping (b) Floor

During the planning of a construction project where Precast Panels are to be used, various factors need be taken into account. For instance, suppose the weather is windy, the crane should be unable to lift the heavy object and place them safely. Therefore, many days will be lost because of such this type of the weather condition (Birkeland and Birkeland 1996).  Additionally, since the installation of Precast Panels is entirely dependent on the use of a crane, the machine will need to be sufficiently large enough to lift panels up to eleven tonnes at a certain radius (Allen and Iano 2011). Moreover, the precast will require using the crane the whole day. As such, the material handling for the other activities such as scaffolds and formworks will be delayed for them to complete their work.

However, there are many benefits in using the precast panels. The wall is already finished at the warehouse, where the concrete is patched and sanded to achieve a finished level. Therefore the only thing left to do on these walls to finish them is to paint them. The primary use of these panels is for balcony walls as these are the only structural walls that are not covered in gyprock or tile. Through the use of precast panels, the building process is shortened as well as the finishing process.

Figure 4.1 (b): Walls under Construction Using Precast Concrete Panels (Cpci.ca, 2017).

4.2 Joints in Concrete Precast Panels

In regards to construction using precast panels, a joint is essentially an intentional gap between an element and a portion or between adjoining members, mostly cladding (NPCAA 2013). Whether vertical or horizontal, joints are used between precast components to physically separate the units (in the case of isolation joints). By isolating the adjacent the members, joints ensure that one element can move independently of the other (CCAA 2014). Apart from separation function, joints prevent the ingress of air and water into the building and also provide continuity of the structural action between the joining elements (NPCAA 2013). Therefore, a well detailed and constructed joints are significant for the maintenance of the integrity of the external envelope of the structure by ensuring that requirements such as waterproofing, acoustic performance, and fire resistance are met at the outer shell.

4.2.1 The Need for Joints

Joints are required for various reasons and purposes in building using concrete precast panels. However, according to the National Precast Concrete Association Australia (NPCAA 2013), there are four fundamental reasons why joints are required. Primarily, joints are needed because:

1. The structure or member cannot be built as a monolithic unit within one concrete placement.
2. The element or structure on either side of the joint needs to move relative to the other. For instance, joints will accommodate the local wall movements typically caused by changes in structural dimensions or wall panels due to deflection from applied load design, temperature variations, or effects of the moisture contents.
3. It is necessary for the member to be of limited sizes to enable for easy handling by cranes.
4. Joints are required at particular points of the structure for the simplicity of the analysis based on the design assumptions of the building or structure.

In general, the successful performance of the external parts of the structure is often defined by the ability of this outer part to prevent rain from entering. Although water will not always penetrate through precast concrete, the panels are relatively permeable to moisture (Allen and Iano 2011). Therefore, it is necessary to ensure that panel-to-panel joints or element-to-panel joints are well considered to prevent the penetration of air and water through the building envelope. For this reason, the design and implementation of joints in construction using precast concrete are vital and therefore, has to be completed in a manner which is economical and rational (Schlaich et al. 1987). Additionally, joint treatment is another aspect with substantial impact on the overall appearance of the project. For the sealant and joint to give the required performance, proper joint design, right product selection, and appropriate preparation of the surface and application techniques must be maintained. Mostly, two aspects of joint selection should be highlighted. These include

1. The position of the joint in regards to the structure and the windows can impact on the construction serviceability and maintenance (Birkeland and Birkeland 1996). In particular, weak joint location often leads to complications which cannot be solved through joint detailing.
2. Ensuring the integrity of the cladding system through careful control of the construction tolerance.

4.2.2 Joint Requirements

Designing for joints can be challenging especially when requirements are not well understood. Therefore, to achieve appropriate design, designers need to have a clear understanding of specific requirements for particular project (CCAA, 2014).  Having a clear understanding of the requirements of a joint is essential for developing a joint which will be easy to maintain and repair. Although the requirements for joints vary depending on the type of joints, certain aspects are common to all joints. Some of these are discussed as follows.

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1. “Buildability” and minimum size

Before finalizing the details for the joint, it is critical for the designer to ensure that the chosen specifications are easy to construct or fabricate and will permit safe and simplicity in construction. The proven specifications should be reused as appropriate to avoid reinvention (CCAA, 2014). Additionally, it is necessary for the joints to be made sufficiently wide to ensure the joints accommodate fabrication, construction, and erection tolerance. Usually, 20mm for width is ideal.

2. Maintenance and Repair

In most constructions, joints are the main points of wear. Therefore, at the design stage, the deterioration aspects of maintenance need to be considered (CCAA, 2014). First, it is important to choose relevant sealant. Although most modern sealants are long-lasting, any sealant will eventually need to be repaired or replaced for some reasons. Therefore, considerations for repair and replacement should form a critical part of the design stage (CCAA, 2014). In this regard, good designs provide for inspection and maintenance for face sealants. Secondly, the designers should choose appropriate cross-section for the joint.

4.2.3 Issues Related to the Number, Location, and Width of Joints

1. Number of Joints

Primarily, the architectural design must try to minimize the number of joints. Achieving this requirement reduces the overall cost of the joints which consequently lowers the maintenance costs as well. Additionally, reducing the number of joints increases economy by employing large panels. According to Schlaich et al. (1987), it is not recommended to limit the panel sizes to minimize movements in the joints. Instead, selecting large concrete panels to provide for anticipated shifts is highly economical. Therefore, it is better to determine the optimal precast panel sizes by considering factors such as:

1. Limitations on the panel sizes and weights by local transportation
2. Erection conditions
3. Availability of handling equipment

In case additional joints are necessary as demanded by the desired appearance, then false joints can be applied for achieving more balanced architectural appearance. However, there is always the challenge of matching the appearance when false joints are used. This problem is best mitigated through simulating the finish of the false joints with the sealants used for the actual joints (Schlaich et al. 1987). Mostly, it should be noted that caulking false joint is often associated with adding unnecessary expenses.

2. Location of Joints

With maximum panel thicknesses, the design and execution of concrete precast panels is a simple process. However, if the panel edges have ribbed projections, then these are the location on which joints should be placed. Primarily, ribs at the edges enhance the structural behaviour the units. Additionally, with joints between the ribs, the panel variation is much less traceable compared to the case in which the joints are located in horizontal positions. Nevertheless, it is not recommended to design the panels with complete ribs at their peripheries (Schlaich et al. 1987). This argument true because ribs at the panel edges may cause the runoff of localized water leading to unsightly staining. Therefore, the best locations for the ribs is at the vertical edges of the panels. However, the full ribs can be placed in one panel only if the ribs are narrow and hence unable to accommodate joints.

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Further, for horizontal joints, they should be positioned near, but above, floor lines while the vertical one should be located on the grid lines. Additionally, as illustrated in Figure 4.2.2 (a) below, joints should be wide enough and recessed to minimize the possible effects of unexpected weathering (Schlaich et al. 1987). Mostly, recessed joints are ideal for sealing the joints from rain by reducing pressure in the face of the sealant through providing a dead-air space. Moreover, the joint profiles the rain runoff which is essential for keeping the building façade free from unattractive runoff patterns.

In forward sloping surfaces, joints are difficult to weatherproof especially when ice or snow is involved. As such, as much as possible, the design should avoid this joint as much as possible (Schlaich et al. 1987). However, if it becomes necessary to include forward sloping joints, then special precautions must be taken against water penetration.

Finally, throughout their lengths, all joints need to be aligned and not staggered (Figure 4.2.2 (b)). The preference to aligned joints is because disadvantages associated with non-aligned joints. For instance, if non-aligned, joints subject the sealant to elongation, compression, or shear forces and also force the panel take literal movement relative each. In this way, non-aligned joint cause high tensile forces.

(c) Location of Joints (NPCAA 2013)

Figure 4.2.2: Typical Architectural Joints ((a) and (b) Schlaich et al. 1987))

3. Width and Depth of Joints

The most important factors take note in determining the width for the joints are of the need to (1) provide erection tolerance for the panel and (2) accommodate variation in the dimensions of the panel. Besides, the width should in achieving sufficient sealing and good virtual lines (Schlaich et al. 1987). Furthermore, width for the joints should be related to adjacent surfaces, panel sizes, joint sealant material, and building tolerance. Mostly, the choice of joint width is dictated by various factors including

1. The approximations for temperature extremes at the project location.
2. The initial temperature at which the sealant is applied
3. The panel size
4. The capacity of movement of the sealant to be used
5. Panel installation method
6. The precast concrete units’ fabricated tolerance

4.2.4 Types of Joints

Besides precast concrete walls or cladding, there are mainly three types of joints. These include (1) Open-drained joints (2) face-sealed joints and (3) compression-sealed joints. The three categories are discussed as follows.

1. Open-drained joints

 This type of joint is made up of a rain-barrier which is an expansion chamber fitted with an air-seal at the interior face of the panel and a loose fitting between the baffle. The baffle prevents rainwater from direct entry while the air-seal acts as the demarcation barrier between the internal and external air pressures. The design (Figure 4.2.4 (a)) ensures that no water enters the joint and any droplets which enter through the baffle are drained downwards (NPCAA 2013). These open-drained are majorly recommended for high-rise and medium-rise constructions due to their ability to withstand large movements.

Figure 4.2.4 (a): Typical Open-drain joint (NPCAA 2013).

Figure 4.2.4 (b): Open-drained joints, Design, and Construction (NPCAA 2013).

2. Face-sealed Joints

The face-sealed types are mostly recommended for low-rise construction applications. These joints are more economical and straightforward than other types. They are sealed by applying sealant close to the external surface of the joint.

3. Compression Joints

The compression joint uses a compressible impregnated polyethylene foam strip. After the panels are erected, the strip is subjected to pre-compression then inserted into the joint (NPCAA 2013). These joints are best suited for low-rise building such as warehouses and factories in which the wind pressure is low.

Figure 4.2.4 (c): (i) Face-Sealed Joint (ii) Compression Joint (NPCAA 2013).

4.2.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Joints based on Types