Monitoring System for Formula Student Car using Lithium-based Battery

Monitoring System for Formula Student Car using Lithium-based Battery

Project background

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The prime objective of formula student challenge, is to design and develop a comprehensive formula car that can take a part in the annual formula student challenge event. Notably this comprehensive design will be shared between all the engineering schools within the campus, which is allowing a group of student to work together as professional team, and share their knowledge to complete this project, and potential of winning this completion within the formula student rules.

To promote the design and increase the winning possibility, the campus formula car constantly subjected to technical improvement and additional features.  As part of this improvement, the team decided to replace the conventional lead-acid battery with a modern technology (lithium-based battery),

This report, deliver a comprehensive case study about the characteristic of this battery, as well as it changing behaviour under different conditions to ensure it compile with this design, beside the practical work which consist on design and develop a monitoring system for this this battery, alongside apply this system to the battery under different conditions to ensure safe operation of this technology, by delivering a valuable parameters value to the driver and team members to improve the performance of the vehicle.

Monitoring battery system is very important feature. Since the essence of this feature is to detect whether the battery has enough energy to start the engine and deliver an appropriate power to car’s equipment, beside detect whether the alternator is sending a suitable energy to charge the battery, therefor this system can help to diagnose any faults within the cars electric system when occurs. Notably sending data about battery condition can determine the quality of the car performance, as well as it life cycle.

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Abstract

This report, contain a complete case study about monitoring system requirement of lithium-based battery, to ensure this highly powered technology is compile with Formula Student Car, to improve its performance.

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Lithium-based batteries has several advantages over the conventional battery at the cost of extra monitoring device beside the control overhead. //

This paper present an overview of the control and management requirement of high power lithium based batteries for Formula Student Car. Lithium-based battery technologies offer performance advantages over traditional battery technologies at the cost of increased monitoring and control overhead.// The additional complexity of drive system based on this type of technologies increases the management burden for the accurate state of charge prediction, state of health prediction cell balancing.

The common fact with a conventional cars (lead acid batteries) is the use of a battery to store electrical energy to sustain high performance, long lifetime and safe operation. It is important to control the temperature of lithium-based battery cells by considering a sufficient and well-designed cooling system.

In this report, monitoring the battery in the formula Student Car is developed and discussed. The first part of the report provide a comprehensive case study about the characteristic of this type of technology and investigating the car’s electric system.

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Eventually the last part is analysing predesigned the System as well as determine the best method of monitoring used in this design, and how to measure battery parameters (Volt, Current, Temperature, power Consumption and Battery Percentage), with equipment used.

Introduction

Lithium is the highest of all metal, it has the best electrochemical potential and provide the biggest particular vitality energy per weight. Rechargeable batteries with lithium metal on the anode could give phenomenally high energy densities. The energy density of lithium-based battery is ordinary twice that of the standard nikel-cadmium. Recently, lithium-based battery is the quickest development and most encouraging battery science.

Lead is a classified as very heavy metal thus, the research took plce for many years to improve battery’s weight issues beside its power density.

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Then lithium-based batteries become the logical choice to replace lead as it has the following

• Longer life cycle
• Faster recharging
• Lower cost
• Operate at a varying temperatures
• Higher energy density
• Lower self-discharge
• Higher rate discharge
• Safer as long as it maintained properly

Lithium is a very receptive and consequently unadulterated. Lithium is never found in nature, Lithium metal is produced from lithium salts which are removed from mining.

Overall lithium-based batteries have beneficial features that have made them the best choice in many application. Lithium is the metal with both the lowest molar mass and the greatest electrochemical potential. This mean that lithium-based batteries can have high energy density. A usual lithium pack (lithium cobalt oxide-carbon) approximately is 3.6 V. and significantly their self-discharge is approximately 5% lower than NiCad batteries, notably its self-discharge at 20%. In addition these battery packs does not consist on those types of dangerous heavy metals (cadmium and lead). Finally lithium-based batteries do not have any memory effects and also do not need to be refilled with an electrolyte. This makes them lower maintaining comparing with lead-acid batteries.

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Literature Review

The chemist John Goodenough include his colleagues Phil Wiseman, Koichi Mizushima, and Phil Jones, were the first people to successfully produce practically valuable lithium-ion power packs, which their experiment took place in Oxford University in 1970s. After publishing their research in 1980, Sony firm turned this metal into a commercial technology, who produced the first lithium-ion batteries in early 1990s. Since then they’ve become commonplace. Which has since become popular and kept its place as the best choice of rechargeable batteries.

One of the lithium-based battery advantages, that it is not require any maintaining process within its life-cycle. No planned cycling is required, and there is no memory impact in the battery. Besides, the lithium-base battery is suitable choice for Formula Student Vehicle, since its self-discharge rate is not as much as half of the discharging rate of the lead-acid and NiMH batteries. Despite the advantages of lithium-based batteries, they also have few drawbacks. Lithium-based battery are brittle. Also it is very sensitive to amount of voltage and current that charging and discharging the battery, beside an extra attention to temperature that this battery face during it working time. To avoid any fault or failing status, a suitable device is required that detect any changes on those facts, and delivering a comprehensive data about battery conditions, to determine it performance. This technology, additionally alluded to as the Battery Management System (BMS), confines the peak voltage of every cell amid charging and keeps the cell voltage from dipping under threshold during discharging. Also the (BMS), controls the maximum charging and discharging currents and monitor the cell temperature.

Lithium-based battery challenges

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The most eminent essence that declares the performance of the lithium-based battery, are the operating temperature, current and voltage. Current and temperature must be maintained within the area indicated by Safe Operation Area (SOA) at all times, which represent under maximum voltage, current and temperature curve. The battery could be permanently defective if it is operated outside the safety zone. The batteries should not be charged such that its voltage exceeds its rated voltage or be discharged such that its voltage falls below the minimum recommended voltage.

The recommended upper limit of charging voltage for a lithium cell is 4.2V per pack. If this value is exceeded while charging, a high current will flow and causes in lithium plating and overheating. Not much from charging cycle, overly discharging the packs or storing them for long time would cause the packs voltage to drop below its lower limit, typically 2.5V, this could gradually break down the electrode.

Alternator and Charging System Checks

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The electrical system of a car is a classified as closed loop circuit with a separated power source which is the battery. Notably this battery operate on a sort duration within this circuit that is will stops as soon as the engine is cranked.

The current will flow from the battery along a particular cable to the starter after turning the switch on. When the engine is running, the battery and the all other car’s electric system will be powered by the engine. Otherwise when it is off, the battery will proceed with powering this system. Thus, connecting car’s body to the earth is required, which is can be done by connecting it with battery’s negative terminal with suitable cable.

How Car Electric System Work

The car’s electric system consist on four main circuits.

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1. Starting circuit, where the battery supply current to the starter when turning the switch on, and the starter amplify this current to make it suitable for spark plugs to start the engine.
2. Charging circuit, where the engine crank the alternator, that induce current through electromagnetic procedure, and deliver this current back to charge the battery after rectifying it (converting from AC to DC), and regulated since the current value will vary due to engine speed variations.
3. Powering loads circuit, where the battery and/or the alternator supply power to car’s electric equipment.
4. Monitoring circuit, where a monitoring is detecting battery’s parameters to determine it status.

Car electric system component

Electric circuit that powered by the battery when the engine is off, and power by the alternator when the engine is on

The above circuits are generally operating by switch or relays, to active the circuits or open them.

Earth-return system

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When powering a particular electric equipment that connected to the battery, the current delivered from the battery’s positive terminal (+) to that equipment. Notably the other side of this equipment is earthed to car’s bode, which connected to the battery’s negative terminal (-).

When the negative side of this equipment connected to the car body, which earthed by the battery negative terminal, it is called earth-return circuit.

The current strength is determined in amperes (amps); the pressure that causing it to flow around the circuit is called voltage (volts). In the late cars, the battery voltage is approximately 12volt. Beside it the battery’s capacity is determined in amp/hours. A 50 amp/hour battery should be able to deliver a current of 1 amp for 50 hours, or 2 amps for 25 hours.

When battery voltage fall, the flowing current strength will decrease. Thus, due to the lack of power it prevent the electric equipment from working.

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When the electric current flows within a wire, it face a particular resistance from this wire, this gauge of resistance is determined in ohms.

Since thin wire has more resistance than thick once, beside, that thick wires has more place for the electrons to move through, thus, the conductance of the thick wires is greater than the thin once.

Notably the resistance that current facing during it flowing cycle is transmitted to heat.

This can be useful, for instance in the very thin string of a light bulb, which glows white hot. Thus, a thin wire is the most suitable connecting choice for those equipment that relay on high current consumption. Otherwise the alternative choice will cause turn the fuse to be defective or blow it, due to the overheated wire. Significantly the determination of the electrical units engaged: for instance a pressure of 5 volt cause a current of 5 amp to flow through a resistance of 5 ohms.

For ohm’s law, amp is equal volts over resistance. I =

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VR, for instance the current consumption for a bulb with a resistance of 5 ohms, and 10 volts pressure is equal to 2 amps.

Therefor the thickness of wire connected with this bulb must be suitable to handle 5 amps without any problems.

To determine the power consumption of this blub, simply is multiply the current by the voltage which measured in watts. In this case the bulb consumption is 20watts.

Positive and negative polarity

Current flowing in a single direction from the battery, when a component connected in wrong way, the component will not work as the current flowing into it from the earthed side, possible causes defection.

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Therefor the battery power the system through it positive terminal (+), notably the negative one (-) is earthed to the ear-thing point.

Short circuits and fuses

A short circuit occurs for many reasons, the most common one that, using wrong thickness of wires, as well as wires different wires touching each other. The impact of the short circuit incidence is the resistance of the component will be bypassed, which causes damaging the wire and possibly catch a fire, due to high flowing current.

Fuse box // puts figure for fuse box

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Usually fuses are combined together within a water and heatproof box, that siled properly to be protected from any external affect. The aim of these fuses is to protect the component from over-flowing current, as well as any defective problems, as they consist on a short length wire, that will prevent the current from flowing, when it disconnected by the cause of high amps current.

Thus, the best fuse type are those with short-thin wires. Therefor these fuses provide a big benefit that, protect the system component and reducing the cost of replacing equipment when short circuit is occur.

Notably it is highly recommended to install an individual fuse for each component, which allow those component to work independently, when a short circuit occur, other component won’t be affected. Also those fuses are earthed on the other side by fuse box ground point.

Circuit types

Mainly there are two different type of circuits that used in electric system

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1. Parallel circuit, where the component connected beside each other, thus, they share the same amount of power.
2. Series circuit, where followed by the other within same line connection, thus the power they receive is different.

In la amp application, the glowing factor occur when a particular amount of current consumed by it resistance, which depends of the value of this resistance.

So when two resistors connected in series, the resistance that current face will increase, causes decreasing in lamp glowing density. Notably in a parallel type, the number of resistance has no impact of the glowing lamp density.

An example of the series connection within car’s electric system, is fuel level sensor that deliver an electric signal the fuel gauge, due to the variation of its resistance is depend on the fuel level within the tank

Ancillary circuits

Battery connected to the starter with an independent cable, and the starter with ignition beside the spark plugs form the circuit that turn the engine on by the high-tension current amplified within the ignition, due to the electromagnetic process, and, delivered to the spark-pugs that fire the engine.

Once the engine start running, it crank the alternator, which induces and alternating current, that converted to DC current to charge the battery. The insularity circuits are those connected to the ignition, which is mean they depend on the ignition to be active. The benefit of this type of circuit, is protecting the battery from total discharge when switching on some electric equipment. Notably some other circuit who consume low current, most be wired independently from the battery, like front and back light, allowing them to work even when the engine is off. While other circuitries who consume high current, are usually connected to the ignition circuit.

In additional some other equipment that wired to the ignition circuit, can work without turning the engine on, by turning the starting switch to auxiliary position.

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Wires and printed circuits

In this type of circuit, wires and cable size, declares the maximum acceptable current that key can handle, and the instrument connection located at the sides of these circuit are subjected to fraction the integral catches. Thus, a combination of many electric cables and wires installed within the car. The solution of not misconnect these wires are to colour code them.

To make this cable installation organised and tidy, attaching all cables that goes in the same directions within isolated bundles. The entire bundles and wires known as wiring loom. That covers all around cars body.

Diagnosing the battery

Generally, battery and ignition circuit are the causes of starting problems when occur, in some cases, diagnosing the electrical problems is a complex issue, such as intermittent problem. Thus, during resolving electrical problems, some component is replaced unnecessarily due to the difficulty of diagnosing electrical issues.

Mainly, a low battery voltage is the cause of starting and drive ability problems, which is relay on a simple procedure to diagnose. The low battery voltage has several impact on the car electric system, for instance, low battery can case difficulty of starting and possibly misfire due to the insufficient current that the injectors receive. Also the impact of low voltage battery is significant on the fuel pump, by casing low fuel pressure, due to slow running fuel pump.

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One of the disadvantages of lead-acid battery, when it fully discharged, a significant of chemical changing behaviour occur on lead plate located within the lead battery. A symptoms of low bower battery occur, due to the sulphate layer cover the lead plate that prevent the battery from charging. Therefore, keeping this battery at or near full charge at all the time is crucial.

Approximately, between four to five years is the average battery life in typical conditions. Battery’s power can be decreased up to 50% when the temperature dropped to 20 F degrees, notably the suitable current to start the cold engine is almost twice amps at this temperature. Thus, the impact of varying temperature on batteries is significant.

Ways of checking the battery

There are many ways to determine battery’s conditions, the most accurate one, is using a digital voltmeter, that display battery parameters values as a digital number.

Battery’s voltage is no reliable to determine battery status accurately, as a fully charged battery is a most of the cars is approximately 12.65V. when discharging this battery to 75%, the readying display 12.45V. therefore the most accurate way to determine battery status is by measuring the battery’s energy.

Also, a fully charged battery may not be able to start the engine or even the battery may be defective, as the main concern when starting the engine, is that the battery can deliver a suitable current when applying a particular load on it.

Determine the battery status

Two ways to determine battery status:

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• By applying a load testing with a tester that calibrate the load on the battery, which is requires the battery to be fully charged for accurate test results.
• By testing with an electronic (conductance) tester, which does not require a fully charged battery for accurate test results.

How conductance testers works

Conductance tester deliver a frequency signal though the battery to determine the volum active plate area is available to hold and send power. As the battery ages, its conductance decline. Bearing in mind that sorts, opens and other defects also affect conductance. Therefor measuring conductance gives an accurate indication of the battery condition.

Generally many electronic battery testers also determine battery’s Cold Cranking Amp (CCA) capacity, which can be used to estimate the battery’s remaining service life. Also some testers measure the amps drawn by the starter while cranking the engine, and analyse the charging system’s output under load once the engine is running.

Therefor if the vehicle needs a new battery, it should have the same or higher CCA rating as the original equipment battery specified by the vehicle manufacturer. Technically batteries should be fully charged before installing them, where other items that should always be inspected and may need to be replaced include the following

• battery cables
•  anti-corrosion washers (for battery terminal)
• Battery tray and/or battery hold-down hardware
• Clamps

Checking the charging system

The vehicle charging system consist on the following component

It is very important to check vehicle’s charging system to make sure it is operating correctly and capable of keeping the battery at an appropriate charging level. As standard, the charging voltage with the engine at fast idle should usually be about 1-1/2-2 volts higher than battery voltage.

Alternator checks

The alternator charging output increments in corresponding to the electrical load on the charging system and motor speed. Charging output is controlled by voltage regulator, which may be mounted inside or on the back of the alternator (internally regulator), or somewhere else under the bonnet (externally regulator). In recent vehicles, the powertrain control module (PCM) regulates charging output.

If the alternator is overloaded, it may overheat and fail. An alternator failure will cause the battery to run down and it becomes flat. There are many symptoms of charging problems such as

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• Dim headlights
• Hard starting
• Charging system warning light

Eventually bench testing an alternator is a good way to verify the diagnosis and/or to confirm the output of the alternator.

Starter checks

An engine that won’t crank may have a bad starter, or it may have another fault such as

• Bad starter solenoid starter drive
• Problem in the ignition switch circuit
• Park/neutral or brake safety switch circuit
• Anti-theft immobilizer system

Therefor if the battery is fully charged and the starter is receiving normal battery voltage but fails to crank or crank slowly, it indicates that the starter is defective and probably need to be replaced.

The most common cause of the starter failure are the following

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• Prolonged cranking, which causes the motor to overheat.
• Brushes, bushings, starter drive become worn, due to long term of usage.
• Defective starter solenoid, a defective solenoid will prevent the starter from working. This solenoid routs current to the motor when the ignition switch is turned to crank position.
• The starter drive mechanism that engages the flywheel may also stick or fail, which prevent the starter from working.

Starter technical fact

A replacement of new starter must have the same bolt pattern and electrical connections as the original, and the same number of teeth on the drive gear. It is crucial to handle permanent magnet starter with care because the magnets are brittle and can be easily cranked if the starter drops, related items may also be replaced include battery cables and engine ground straps.

Ignition diagnosis

Primary and secondary ignition patterns can reveal a great deal about the health and performance of the ignition system. Reading ignition patterns on a scope it gives a good data about the ignition status.

Spark plugs diagnosis

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Spark plugs wear out (even long life 100,000-mile), and can become fouled by carbon deposits. The impact of defective plug is losing power and potentially fuel economy and exhaust hydrocarbon (HC) emission issue, which may eventually damage the catalytic converter. Defective or worn spark plugs can cause difficulty of starting the engine and poor performance.

Spark plugs wires diagnosis

The spark plugs wires (ignition cables) carry high voltage from coil or distributor to the spark plug.

Significantly plug wires can deteriorate with the following

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• Defective plugs
•  Starting problems
• Poor performance

Wires should be replaced if the boots or terminals are loose, damaged or corroded in the following conditions

1. If the wires are cracked.
2. Sparking.
3. The internal resistance of the wires exceeds specifications.

In the recent model engines the coils are mounted directly on the spark plugs, which is no need for plug wires there are no plug wires. To pick up an induced ignition signal from the coils, requires a special adapters, which causes difficulty for ignition diagnosis with a scope.

Ignition coils diagnosis

Coils seldom fail, but when they do they can’t provide voltage to the spark plugs.

Ignition coil types

• Single coil ignition system, a coil failure will cause the engine to quit and prevent it from starting.
• Multi-coil DIS or COP ignition system, coils failure will cause a misfire in only the cylinder supplied by the bad coil.

Testing the Coils requires measuring their internal resistance using an ohm meter. If the coil’s primary or secondary resistance is out of specifications, mean the coil defective.

Ignition module diagnosis

Ignition module may receive a trigger signal directly from the following

1. A distributor pickup (magnetic, Hall effect or optical)
2.  A crankshaft position (CKP) sensor or the PCM.

A fault in any of these component or the wiring can prevent the ignition system from firing.

Therefor loss of spark indicates that the ignition module is defective, or that it is losing its trigger signal from the crank sensor.

The module approach the end of his life cycle, if the module has good inputs, but is not switching the coils on and off.

Facts to consider when replacing lead-acid battery with lithium-based battery

Battery research is focusing on lithium chemistries, the battery future lies solely in lithium-based battery. There are many reasons to be optimistic as lithium-ion is in many ways, superior to other chemistries. Applications are growing and are encroaching into markets that previously were solidly held by lead-acid battery, such as standby and load levelling, many satellites are also powered by li-ion.

Lithium has not yet fully matured and is still improving. Notably advancements have been made in longevity and safety while the capacity is increasing incrementally. Now day, most consumer devices are relay on lithium-based batteries, further more development required for some applications like but EV before this power source trustful.

Lithium-based battery characteristic

The lithium-based battery works on ion movement between the positive and negative electrode. In theory such a mechanism should work forever, but cycling elevated temperature and aging decrease the performance over time. Manufactures takes a conservative approach and specify the life of Li-ion in most consumer products as being between 300 and 500 discharge/charge cycles.

Evaluating battery life on counting cycles is not conclusive because a discharge may vary in depth, and there are no clearly defined standards of what constitute a cycle. A battery may fail within the allotted time due to heavy use or unfavourable temperature conditions; however, most packs last considerably longer than the stamp indicates.

Therefor the performance of a lithium-based battery is measured by the following facts

• By the capacity
• A leading health indicator
• Internal resistance
• Self-discharge

Bearing in mind these facts are less significant in predicting the end of battery life with modern Li-ion.

Figure (1), illustrate the capacity drop of 11 Li-polymer batteries that have been cycled at a codex laboratory. The 1,500m Ah pouch cells for mobile phones were first charged at a current of 1,500mA (1C) to 4.20V/cell, and then allowed to saturate to 0.05C (75mA) as part of the full charge saturation. The batteries were then discharged at 1,500mA to 3.0V/cell, and the cycle was repeated. The normal limit loss of Li-ion batteries was uniform over conveyed 250 cycles, and the batteries function as expected.

//need to put figure number//

Figure (1): capacity drop as part of cycling. Eleven new Li-ion were tested on a codex C7400 battery analyser. All packs started at a capacity of 88_94% and decreased to 73_84% after 250 full discharge cycle.

Courtesy of Codex // maybe change title //

Although a battery should deliver 100% capacity during the first year of service, it is common to see lower then specified capacities, and shelf life may contribute to this loss. In addition, manufacturers tend to overrate their batteries, knowing that very few users will do spot-checks and complain if low. Not having to match single cells in mobile phones and tablets, as is required in multi-cell packs, opens the floodgates for much broader performance acceptance. Cells with lower capacities may slip through cranks without the consumer knowing.

Very identical to a mechanical device that defect quicker with heavy use, the battery’s cycle count depends on the depth of discharge (DOD). The smaller the discharge (low DOD), the longer the battery will last. If at all possible, avoid full discharge and charge the battery more often between uses. Partial discharge on Li-ion is accepted. This battery does not require a complete discharge cycles as there is no memory effect. The exception may be a periodic calibration of fuel gauge on a smart battery or intelligent devices.

Table (2) compare the number of discharge/charge cycles Li-ion deliver at various Depth of discharge (DOD) levels before the battery capacity drops to 70%. All other variables such as charge voltage, temperature and load currents are set to voltage default setting.  (DOD) constitute a full charge followed by a discharge to the indicated percentage levels in table.