Posted: June 14th, 2023

MASAI MARA NATIONAL RESERVE IN KENYA

MASAI MARA NATIONAL RESERVE
IN KENYA
Kenya is one of the
world’s most popular tourist destinations. The country is endowed with
attractive tourist sites, rich culture, striking geographical diversity and
landscapes ranging from beautiful beaches, to animal parks and archeological
sites.TheMasai Mara National Reserveis one of its top tourist attractions and the most popular
game park. Each year the Masai Mara National Reserve is visited by thousands of
tourists who go to watch the exceptional population of game and the annual migration
of zebra and wildebeest i.e. The “Great Migration” which takes place every year
from July to October when millions of wildebeest and zebra migrate from the
Serengeti in Tanzania.
ANIMALS & BIRDS
During the wildebeest migration you will see
thousands of animals. The plains are full of wildebeest, zebra, impala, topi,
giraffe, Thomson's gazelle. Also regularly seen are leopards, lions, hyenas,
cheetah, jackal and bat-eared foxes. Black rhino are a little shy and hard to
spot but are often seen at a distance.Hippos and Nile crocodiles are abundant
in the Mara River. They lay in wait for a meal as the wildebeest cross on their
annual quest to find new pastures.Every July (or sometimes August), the wildebeest
travel over 600 miles (960km) from Tanzania's Serengeti plains, northwards to
the Masai Mara and across the Mara River. In October or November, once they
have feasted and the grass has all but gone, they turn around and go back the
other way.The Mara birds come in various sizes and color
including common but beautiful ones like the lilac breasted roller and plenty
of large species like eagles, vultures and storks. There are nearly 53
different birds of prey.NATURE
OF TOURISM IMPACTS ON MASAI MARA NATIONAL RESERVE
Problem
Statement
Increasing human population, mobility and
participation in recreational activities has exerted pressure on available
resources of land and water in the world. This threatens not only nature but
also recreation quality (Van der Zee 1992). Wildlife viewing and close behavior
inspection has grown rapidly hence increase in mobility in the wildlife parks.
This has significantly affected the growth of natural vegetation in the park
(Onyeanusi, 1986).
Physical impacts of tourism development
§ Construction activities and
infrastructure development
Development of tourism facilities such as accommodation, water supplies,
restaurants and recreation facilities can involve sand mining, beach and sand
dune erosion, soil erosion and extensive paving. In addition, road and airport
construction can lead to land degradation and loss of wildlife habitats and
deterioration of scenery. The building and constructions of parking lots,
accommodation and recreation facilities at the Masai Mara have caused habitat
loss in the reserve.
§ Deforestation and intensified or unsustainable use of
land
Construction of ski resort accommodation and facilities frequently requires
clearing forested land. These activities can cause severe disturbance and
erosion of the local ecosystem, even destruction in the long term. The trees
that were cleared at the Masai Mara to avail space for accommodation facilities
have left part of the reserve bare and vulnerable to action of both wind and
water erosion.
§ Trampling
Tourists using the same trail over and over again trample the vegetation and
soil, eventually causing damage that can lead to loss of biodiversity among
other impacts. Damage can be more extensive when visitors frequently stray off
established trails. These can be clearly depicted by the trail truck lines in
the Masai Mara reserve that have been used over the years. Trampling causes the
vegetation to break, reduce vigor, reduce regeneration, lose ground cover and
change the composition of the species. This will consequently make the soil to
lose organic matter, reduce in macro porosity, decrease in air and water
permeability, and experience increased runoff and consequent accelerated
erosion.
§ Alteration of ecosystems by tourist
activities
Habitat can be degraded by tourism leisure activities. Wildlife viewing could
bring about stress for the animals and change their natural behavior when approached.
Safaris and wildlife watching activities have a degrading effect on habitat as
they often are accompanied by the noise and commotion created by tourists as
they chase wild animals in their trucks and aircraft. The zebras and impala at
the Mara are usually uneasy when they spot the tourists and this interferes
with their activity as they stop feeding so as to be on the lookout. The black
rhino goes into hiding when it spots the tourists. In some cases, such
interferences lead to animals becoming so disturbed that at times they neglect
their young or fail to mate.§
Impact
of Off Road driving (ORD)
Research has found
that off-road driving is a
significant problem in the Masai Mara
Reserve, which is
affecting the habit
and habitat of wildlife,
and the presence
of many hotels and lodges in
and around the reserve are changing
food intake of
birds. In the Masai Mara Reserve about 30 percentof the road and
tracks increased from 1991 to 1999. Road
and tracks cover
was about nine
squarekilometers in 1999
which contains about
five square kilometers of totally barren land due to the off road
driving (Walpole et
al., 2003). In
1991 there were
approximately 189 square
kilometersof roads in
the Reserve which
reached to approximately 223
square kilometers, and tracks
increased from 1,656 to 2,167 during the same period. The reserve’s land is
now covered by the road networks about 4,300 kilometers in length at noticeable
levels. Physical damage to
the vegetation, conflict with
the local people,
as well as disturbances to
the wildlife, landscape,
and cultural settings are
the common off road driving
problems to the
reserve. Special rules have
been set up to control the problem (RDNP2005).
§ Tourist and vehicle entry in the
park
Over the past decade, the recorded visitor entries
to the Masai Mara National Reserve are increasing annually at the rate of 9
percent per year. In 1980, the total visitor entry was 114000, which reached
255000 in 1990. On an average the visitor stays in the reserve for about 2.5
days. After 1990 visitors entry rate is not constant every year but the trend
is not negative. Increase in visitors increases the number of vehicles hence
has a great impact on the reserve. In 1980, the number of vehicles entering
was 17160 and in 1990 the same approximately doubled and reached 33110. After
1991 due to some external factors such as Gulf war, fears of AIDS, and
terrorist attacks and some other reasons, the number of visitors has
fluctuated (Washilwa, 1996). But since 1995, the flow has been increasing.
§ Airstrips and Their Effects
The
existing road conditions
of the Masai
Mara are not good and some visitors prefer to travel viaairplane to
the reserve. Within
the Masai Mara, including the
area outside of
the reserve, thereare
eight airstrips handled
by hotels. The tourist flow via
airplanes is eight
to 10% of
the total annual entry.
In most of the cases, their safari vehicles are driven from Nairobi.
These visitors do not prefer to
be in-groups in
safari and drive
so that there are
two to three
persons using one vehicle. Off
the road driving
and high speed driving are
very common with
these passengers because they
stay for a short period and they are eager
to see many
animals within the
shortest possible time. The area occupied by the eight airstrips is
noticeable. The landing and take-off activities may have
an effect on wild animals within a significant distance.Socio-Cultural Impacts
The socio-cultural impacts of tourism refer to the effects
on host communities associated with tourists, and interaction with the tourism
industry in general. For various reasons, host communities often are the weaker
party in interactions with their guests and service providers, leveraging any
influence they might have. These influences are not always apparent, as they
are difficult to measure, depend on value judgments and are often indirect or
hard to identify.
The
impacts arise when tourism brings about changes in value systems and behavior
and thereby threatens indigenous identity. Furthermore, changes often occur in
community structure, family relationships, collective traditional life styles,
ceremonies and morality. But tourism can also generate positive impacts as it
can serve as a supportive force for peace, foster pride in cultural traditions
and help avoid urban relocation by creating local jobs. As often happens when
different cultures meet, socio-cultural impacts are ambiguous: the same
objectively described impacts are seen as beneficial by some groups, and are
perceived as negative by other stakeholders.§ Park-People Interaction and Tourist
Inflow
Nature, culture, the
environment, anddevelopment are closely related. The customs, norms, behavior, and values of
the society areguided by nature. Tourists are interested in watching or feeling
close to these inherent social phenomena in the wilderness of nature. At the
Masai Mara National
Reserve and surrounding group ranches it was observed that people look
upon tourists as
the principal source
of foreign currency for
the state. They
are equally concerned with
the negative impact
caused by tourism on wild
animals and their
cultural values. A new concept in the field of tourism and nature
conservation is eco-tourism. This is a practice of tourism without disturbing
the nature or watching nature without disturbance. In
the case of the
Masai Mara tourists
can travel by
light vehicles.
Economic Impacts of Tourism
The tourism industry generates substantial economic
benefits to both host countries and tourists' home countries. Especially in
developing countries, one of the primary motivations for a region to promote
itself as a tourism destination is the expected economic development brought
about by foreign exchange.
In the Masai Mara National reserve in Narok district
of Kenya the primary problems are related tothe inadequate life support system
in place and the secondary problems are associated with the infrastructure in
the area.
The flow of tourists to the park can be economically
beneficial but in terms of wildlife conservation it could be detrimental. The
infrastructure development for the tourists including roads within the reserve,
hotels, resorts and camping have negative impact on the wildlife habitat
(Gakahu, 1992).
There is growing population pressure from agriculturists
and livestock keepers around the park and in wildlifeareas. Agriculture is
increasing even in marginal areas that are part of a wildlife habitat. At the
same time, these people experience considerable damage to crop and livestock
from wildlife
Tourist
flow and its effect on the reserve
Tourism in the Masai Mara reserve has been
economically successful. Out of the 57 protected areas, which include inland
and marine national parks and reserves, Masai Mara receives the highest number
of visitors not only in Kenya but in East Africa (Muthee, 1992). An available
report shows that average annual tourist entry in the park is around 200,000
(Gakahu, 1992).
Development of tourist facilities in the reserve has
been quick in response to the growing number of visitors. Increased tourist
facilities have caused the loss of habitat and naturalness of the area. Lodges have
garbage and sewagedisposal problems. Garbage attracts carrion-eaters such as
hyenas, baboons,velvet monkeys and marabou storks, some scavengers, such as
hyenas, may change their natural feeding habits and became permanent garbage
feeders.·
Hotels
in the park
The increase in visitors at the Masai Mara means
good business for the hotels in the park. Unfortunately, increase in visitors
means a consequent increase in vehicles and visitors' accommodation. Managing
tourism and assessing visitor capacity of the reserve has not been done yet
(Henry, 1992) and this is an issue that cannot just be overlooked.IMPLICATIONS
AND RECOMMENDATIONS
• Impacts
must be evaluated on a case-by-case basis
Interactions resulting from tourism are difficult to
predict onmany issues, with few consistent patterns or emerging relationships. The
fact that impacts can be both curvilinear and varyfrom resource to resource
reinforces the need for monitoring programs that can track changing trends.Finding
the causes of a problem gives managers the necessary information to select
indicatorsto track changes over time.
• Locating
tourism activities in areas where resources areboth resistant and resilient
helps limit damage
Resistanceand resilience factors may be described in
backgroundinformation collected during the planning process, such as concerning
the vulnerability of certain wildlifespecies.
• Evaluating
a site‘s goals and objectives during control of tourism impacts will influence
tourism activities
For example, habituation maymake it easier for
tourists to see wildlife but seriouslycompromise scientific study. If
scientific investigation is amanagement objective, maintaining populations
ofwildlife in a natural state will take precedence overtourism considerations.
•
Impacts that are visitor related should be analyzed accordingly
This could be done according to use patterns, types
of user groups, groupsize, amount of use and mode of travel. Through
suchanalysis, visitor groups and activities can be matched withproblem areas.
• A
community‘s stability and structure have an important effect on its resilience
Essential
factors to analyze includethe community‘s ability to plan and its labor
patternswith regard to who is employed, in what capacity and at what wagesand
during which months. An early assessment should bemade of how a community can
contribute or influencetourism development. Local communities need time
todecide on their direction.• Identifying
activities that use existing resources and skills
This will maximize the potential economic benefit of
tourismdevelopment to the local community. Community projectssuch as small
cooperative hotels could be considered, butcareful planning and support is
needed. Attention shouldbe paid to whether certain tourist ventures may
producewide differences in local salaries. These activities may notbe
advisable.
• Determining
how tourism revenue is distributed
This could be with regard to whether most of it goes
to a few individuals or families, orwhether it is distributed widely through
purchases of local goods or in the form of wages thus, this will reveal the
economic impact of tourism opportunities. The assessment of revenue
distribution should take into account how tourismprojects interact with other
economic opportunities within the family unit and the community; for some,
evenmodest revenues from tourism may be significant.
• The need
for an in-depth knowledge of the local culture
For example, how people celebrate or how they
withdrawor seek privacy during the planning and management oftourism programs
is widely acknowledged. Some cultures are especially vulnerable to the adverse
effects oftourism. To generate tourism that enhances rather thanthreatens local
heritage, managers may consider not somuch what tourists might want to see in
the communitybut what residents are prepared to reveal about themselves.
MANAGING
THE IMPACTS OF TOURISM
Any sustainable tourism program must work in concert
with stakeholders, or interested parties,including government agencies,
conservation andother non-governmental organizations, developersand local
communities. Their participation in theplanning and management process is of
paramountimportance. Tourism-related public participationissues form the basis
of a checklist for managers whowish to avoid unnecessary conflicts. Knowledge
ofthese issues is an essential prerequisite for effectivepublic participation,
particularly when planningstakeholder meetings and setting up tourism advisory
councils.
Those responsible for promoting sustainable tourism are:
1.
Planning
Authorities
These play a crucial role in facilitating sustainable tourism
through enacting for laws and providing guidelines to be adhered to so as to
protect wildlife. In developing countries such as Kenya, the government has
difficulties in enforcing laws and been proactive in promoting regulations on
proper tourist behavior medical tourism since they lack sufficient funds to
employ enough park rangers to patrol the Masai Mara reserve.
2.
BusinessesThe International Tourism gains sometimes to think of long-term
Partnership with businesses, a worldwide solutions against the impacts of membership
organization for tourism that commercial businesses in the tourism sector have
provided. These may include implementing practical guidelines for hotel
measures to conserve energy and businesses to adopt (like the water, education
to guests and staff) encouraging purchase of local products and employing local
people and providing means for guests to be involved in local community
development projects.
3.
TouristsTourists also must learn about culture, traditions and background
of a host country so as to understand the needs of destination to better
appreciate their way of life and avoid interfering with it at any cost. The
Masai community around Masai Mara are usually dressed in red shoals and some
walk around with spears in case of attack by wild animals.
4.
Non-governmental
Independent pressure groups
These include the World Wide Fund for organizations/NGOs
campaigning organizations that are usually nonprofit-oriented and are geared
towards conserving natural places and resources like coasts and forests.
Management actions can be direct or indirect. Direct
management actions confront problems of human behavior through regulations that
may entail enforcement, restricting activities or rationing use. Indirect
methods seek to affect behavior through education, information and persuasion.
A combination of methods is also recommended for controlling vandalism,
including physical protection of the resource.
Factors to consider when selecting management
actions include whether they meet objectives, their likelihood of success and
difficulties of implementation, particularly cost.
Management of Tourism impacts could take various forms:
i.
Reducing
the number of people who enter an area
Reducing
visitation in high use areas is a justifiable means of avoiding social impacts
such as crowding, but may not by itself substantially reduce some ecological
impacts. Reducing the number of people in a tourist site can effectively reduce
crowding or congestion. When Masai Mara is crowded with both local and foreign
tourists, the management reduces the capacity of visitation so as to protect
the wildlife.
Management options for reducing the number of
visitors to a site can include:
• restricting entry or closing an area;
• limiting group sizes;
• implementing a quota or permit system;
• increasing fees; or
• Not providing facilities.
ii.
Weighing
whether to disperse or concentrate visitors
·
Concentrating
people
This can limit social and environmental impacts. The
strategy offers a high level ofcontrol and protection for sensitive resources.
By limitinguse to a few selected areas within a site, particularly areasthat
are resistant to impacts or at least not as sensitive to impacts, the policy
confines disturbance to a smaller area.
·
Dispersing
visitors
This is seldom simple and maynot mitigate impacts.
Limiting environmental impacts innatural areas by dispersing use to different
areas can beeffective in areas where use levels are low and visitors
areconscientious about their behavior.
·
The
decision to concentrate or disperse tourism
This should reflect policy goals and management
objectives. A frequent policy goal is to assure that thebenefits of tourism
flow to the communities around a site.This may lead to pressure to open up new
areas of a siteto visitors.
iii.
Changing
the physical environment toresist impacts
Increasing a site’s resistance to visitor impactsby
installing or modifying infrastructure is generallyreferred to as site-hardening.
Adding infrastructure, or“hardening” a site, strengthens its physical
durability.
Another way
to avoid impacts issimply to move infrastructure away from sensitive areas.
iv.
Changing
visitor behavior
Interpretation and education programs can mitigate environmental
and social impacts.Educational programs instruct people on how best tobehave at
a site. Interpretation programs inform andexplain the site’s resources and
significance to the visitor.Visitors can be taught low-impact techniques at
both cultural and natural sites.
v.
Offering
incentives for practicing certain activities
Visitors may be redirected through scheduling.For
example, a site may be opened early for bird-watchersor closed early to limit
other types of visitors. Proper construction and efficient siting of
infrastructure can encourage the use of certain areas over others.
vi.
Changing
types of activity throughregulation
Regulations limiting activities and/or the waythey
are practiced can radically affect ecological andsocial impacts. For example,
banning off-road vehiclesand motorcycles reduces soil erosion, as does the use
ofhorses.
vii.
Changing
the site’s social environmentby reducing visitor conflicts
Separating conflicting activities reduces conflict.
Allocating specific activities to certain areas helpsreduce conflict between
different types of visitors. Theconcept of separating user groups is related to
theRecreational Opportunity Spectrum.viii.
Distributing
benefits to communitiesaffected by the site
Locals are more likely to participate in conservation
when it is associated with an improvement intheir standard of living.
Environmental conservation and education programs alone will notachieve results
hence the need for collective community responsibility.
IMPLICATIONS
AND RECOMMENDATIONS
In problem solving for management solutions, the
firststep is to analyze all indicators and determine why standards are not
being met. Amassing information on usergroups causing problems (e.g., day users
instead oftourists staying for long periods.) will help to focusefforts.
When evaluating possible actions, considering the
variousindirect and direct methods available can be a usefulprocess. Valuable
input can be obtained by reviewing thesite’s goals and objectives during
discussions with staff andadvisory body members while considering the scenarios
thatcould result from different strategies and actions. Actions should be
combined for best results.
Costing out different actions on the basis of
availablestaff and other resources will also provide an idea ofwhich actions
will be effective.
Management actions should not be taken without
athorough analysis and understanding of the socio-culturaland individual
importance of a site to the people of thecommunity.REFERENCES
1)
Akama,
J. S. and Ondimu, K. I. 2001. Tourism product development and the changing
consumer demand: a case study of Kenya.
2) Prins, Herbert; Jan GeuGrootenhuis, Thomas T. Dolan
(2000).Wildlife Conservation by Sustainable Use. Springer.ISBN 0-412-79730-5.
3)
Jolliffe,
Lee (2000).Tea and Tourism: Tourists, Traditions and Transformations. Channel View
Publications.ISBN 1-84541-056-4.
4)
Nagle,
Garrett (1999).Tourism, Leisure and Recreation. Nelson Thornes.ISBN 0-17-444705-1.

Tags: Best Online Essay Writers - Thesis and Dissertation Help, Custom Dissertation Writing Services for PhD Students, Essay USA, UK - Cheap Essay Writing Service