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Posted: December 9th, 2024
Football disorder has ruled football fields for decades. Therefore, hooligans constitute the main problem in modern football. Recently, many clashes linked with nationalism, racism, and discrimination, have risen in all parts of the world. While it was known identity was a cause of hooliganism, this paper analyzes how the desire to represent a particular club or nation causes violence among football fans (hooliganism), more precisly why does it lead to discriminatory acts. Six scholarly and non-scholarly articles have been described and compared to find out the possible causes of such behaviours. Impule in emotions and the social phenomenon of following the group, lead by identity, accentuate the causes of discrimination. It results in large discriminatory acts commited by particular racist hooligan groups.
This paper will focus on how identify influences violence in football games. Over the course of the last half-century, violence among football fans has risen to a point of no control, and it has lead many researchers (Canon 2008) and (Gow and Rookwood 2008) to question the causes of disruptions on football stands. The definition of a hooligan is not widely accepted. Some give it a positive connotation while others describe it in a negative way. Some of the proposed definitions of a hooligan are: one who actively participates in the “living experience” of football by engaging emotionally and positively in the success of their football club (Canon 2008), one who is strongly engaged in nationalism (Mota 2009), or the violent behaviour of a football spectator (Gow and Rookwood 2008). Yet, this topic is vastly debated. Experts argue whether or not hooligans still have their place in modern football. While statistics show the number of arrests due to rioting have risen on football stadiums in England (Chula 2009) and in the Netherlands (Spaaij 2007), ordinary fans are getting increasingly afraid of attending games of their beloved club (Spaaij 2007), security being the social nature of this problem. Furthermore, the threat must be massive since football is consiered as a religion for 60% of european fans (Canon 2008). In other cases, lead by strong emotions based on their identity, hooligans have engaged in atrocities that lead to many casualties in Italy, England, and other parts of the world (Gow and Rookwood 2008). While it is known that there are many causes for hooliganism, such as the media, the police, personal reasons, the desire to represent, social causes and revenge, identity, and dissatisfaction (Gow and Rookwood 2008), the identity to a club or nation has caused many clashes based on nationalism, racism, and discrimination, (Football Against Racism in Europe n.d.) and (Spaaij & Viñas, 2005).
Thus, this essay will analyze how the desire to represent a particular club or nation causes violence among football fans (hooliganism), more precisly why does it lead to discriminatory acts. Therefore, seven scholarly and non-scholarly articles will be compared based on their explanations of why is football so important to average europeans and how does it lead to an impulse of emotions which causes riots and social unrests at football games.
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Canon. “Football Passions.” The Social Issues Research Centre. 2008.
http://www.sirc.org/football/football_passions.pdf (accessed August 25, 2009).
The study was commissioned and realized by Canon, a well-known company, wanting to accomplish extensive sociological research on capturing the emotions of being a football fan. The names of the researchers are not indicated, thus, we cannot question the credentials of the authors; it will remain unknown and unestablished. But, the research was done by the Social Issues Research Center, which is a leading research group in the United Kingdom. The purpose of the study, as mentioned, was to capture the emotions of being a football fan and to compare the feelings, expressions, and behaviours of fans associated with support of their football teams. The major aspect of the study was that it should capture the experiences of every-day football fans and that it should provide their opinions on the problems of hooliganism. The sampling methods used for the study were interviews and online surveys. In the first case, fieldwork was conducted in eighteen countries. Online surveys (m=2,000) were took across all countries of Europe. There were no hypothesis, nor variables since the objective was to analyze various behaviours, and then to find a conclusion about the different aspects of hooliganism. The internal validity is good since the sampling was large, but it was not perfect since it was not done randomly. The study can be generalized to Europe and we can thus say the external validity is very good. As for the results and the conclusion, the research reveals a largely positive side to hooliganism. It also explains the rituals of football fans and the passion created by the fans. It is a largely descriptive research. I believe the study is biased because it only shows the hooligan’s point of view, which is unreal in the current atmosphere of modern football. Some results and statistics are good, but some should be analyzed carefully because they could be biased and unreliable.
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Chula, Jesse. Hooliganism: Did It Ever Go Away? Who Foots The Bill? September 6, 2009. http://www.epltalk.com/hooliganism-did-it-ever-go-away-who-foots-the-bill/10832 (accessed September 6, 2009).
Football Against Racism in Europe. Racism in Football. http://www.farenet.org/default.asp?intPageID=40 (accessed September 7, 2009).
The URL gives me an appropriate idea that this is a specialized website in my domain because of the acronym F.A.R.E. (meaning Football against Racism in Europe) and of the ending “.org”, suggesting it is an organization. The page is written by a group of authors whose expertise is in racism, homophobia, and exclusion of minorities. The website is updated regularly (at least monthly, but most of the times weekly) announcing action plans against discrimination. Some of the information was written about a year ago, while there is a lot of fresh stuff. The topic area is discrimination. While there are little or no references, information seems reliable because the organization seems to have its own well-established database. Thus, it seems the website has overall great integrity and reliability. The website does not use a scientific method for referencing and citing. The target audience of the website are football fans, and its function is to demonstrate that racism is present in modern football, and how it should be stopped. The website is largely sponsored by the UEFA and FIFA football bodies, which want to stop discrimination on football fields. While there is only one point of view, there is no feeling of bias on the website; it can only be understood that they are showing the real facts. This page cannot be considered as ironic because it is a serious organization, well-known around the world. It is possible to contact the ten experts that have designed and created the website via telephone, fax, or e-mail.
Gow, Paul, and Joel Rookwood. “Doing it for the team-examining the causes of hooliganism in English football.” Journal of Qualitative Research in Sports Studies, 2008: 71-82.
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The study is conducted by Paul Gow and Joel Rookwood. They are experts and have realized their research in the Sports Studies Department of Liverpool’s Hope University, where they are probably teachers. In the research, it is argued that hooliganism is a diverse phenomenon that is not mono-casual. Therefore, it is an argumentative essay. The main intention is to find causes for hooliganism in modern era football. The research was conducted by developing a fan-based perspective on the causes of hooliganism. Interviews and study-groups were conducted with twenty fans from five English clubs in the 2006-2007 season. The clubs selected were representative of geography, league position, success achieved, fan base, and exposure to European competition. Interviewed fans offered their perspectives on many personal factors explaining hooliganism. We don’t know if the study was conducted randomly. The internal validity is not good since the sample size is relatively small (m=20). But, since it is a case study, it would have been difficult to have a larger sample size. The results show that there are six causes for hooliganism: the influence of media, the influence of police, personal reasons, desire to represent or to have an identity, revenge and superiority, and dissatisfaction. Therefore, it is shown that hooliganism is a diverse phenomenon that is not mono-casual. The results cannot be generalized outside of England, because the socio-cultural environment is not the same in other areas of Europe where hooliganism is just as present. The research may be biased because it is done on fan-based opinion. Still, it is a source that analyzes in depth the causes of hooliganism and that offers the best theories about it.
Mota, Miguel. “Boys Will Be Hooligans: History and Masculine Communities in John King’s England Away.” Critique, Spring 2009: 261-273.
Spaaij, Ramón. “Football Hooliganism in the Netherlands: Patterns of Continuity and Change.” Soccer & Society, July 2007: 316-334.
Spaaij, Ramón, and Carles Viñas. “‘A por ellos!’: racism and anti-racism in Spanish football.” International Journal of Iberian Studies, 2005: p141-164.
The research was done by Ramón Spaaji and Carles Viñas, experts in hooliganism and racism. Ramón Spaaji had already written many scholarly articles on those topics. Spaaji is affiliated to the University of Amsterdam, where he is a trustable and respected source. Carles Viñas is affiliated to the University of Barcelona. The authors’ intention is to describe the neo-Nazi and racist phenomenons by fan groups across Spain. The two main questions posed by the authors are whether there is a hooligan/racist correlation, and whether there is a transformation in current sources of racism. The study is descriptive. The methodology used was to compare and analyze existing studies on the subject. The validity of the study cannot be verified because it is entirely based on independent studies, there is neither qualitative nor quantitative data measured by the authors. The conclusions found that racism is a widespread phenomenon in Spain of national identity, superiority, and prestige. The desire to conform to a group also leads to violence and discrimination. Still, a lot of hooligan groups try to dissociate themselves from racism and discrimination. The authors conclude three main points: the ultra movement is heterogeneous; racial abuse is not limited to hooligans; and racist discourses are variable and inconsistent. I believe the study to be extremely pertinent to my topic, because the study took place in Spain, believed to be one of the most discriminatory football environments in Europe.
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