Effect of Parental Sexual Orientation on Children

Meriam Khalifa

Psych 1

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In Does Parental Sexual Orientation Matter? A Longitudinal Follow-Up of Adoptive Families with School-Age Children, the researcher Rachel Farr studied the relationship between couples’ sexual orientation and their children’s behavior. She questioned whether their sexual orientation would impact children’s well-being based on the debates of ‘father and mother need to present’ vs. the increases today in same-sex couples. Farr hypothesized that the makeup of the family would have no impact on the children’s behavior. She draws on the family stress theory, which states that children’s healthy development is based on adequate family functioning rather than family structure.

Instead, Farr chooses to emphasize the impact of stress on parents due to parenting, the satisfaction of couples in their relationship, and family functioning. She chose to compare heterosexual, gay and lesbian couples. All couples were predominantly white, with similar household income, education and work statuses. They had more racially varied children. The experiment took place across the U.S., with controls such as equal gender of children in the study and the same factors examined at the second time of collecting stats. The researcher addressed the issue of unknown factors: higher stress levels in same-sex couples could be attributed to the fact that they are of minority status.

Being longitudinal study, it was necessary to look at differences in stress across developmental stages. Farr also states that clear associations have been made between child adjustment, parental stress levels and couple adjustment. With that in mind, child adjustment, the stress of parenting on parents and couple adjustment was studied first. Findings were conducted using self-reports and surveys. She wanted to see if there are differences that occur across family organization. Researchers conducted two hour surveys while children were preschool age. The follow up was conducted five years later when children were further developed.

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Child behavioral adjustment was measured using parent reports (CBCL) and teacher reports on the Teacher Report Form (TRF) during both instances. Items were rated on a scale (0-2). Parenting was measured using a Stress Index ranging thirty-six questions assessing multiple aspects of their experience. Adjustment in the relationship was examined using a (6-point) scale of Dyadic Adjustment Scale. Using a Family Assessment Device, levels of family functioning were measured on a 6-point scale the second time.

The findings were as such: gender of the children influenced both family situation as well as parents’ opinions on their child’s behavior, and traditional trajectories were comparable to population average. No strong correlation was found between differences in the way same-sex and heterosexual couples attended their children. The orientation of parents seems to have no impact on the levels of child behavioral adjustment. Children’s well-being did not differ by parental sexual orientation. Predictions across child age of some components, such as family functioning, were confirmed. In conclusion, no significant differences occur across sexual orientation of parents. Farr deducted that children were well-adjusted throughout time. The important differences occur in levels of stress that parents experience while raising a child. While higher levels of stress could lead to increased behavioral problems in a child, this environmental factor is correctly confirming a relationship previously thought to occur. Confirming those beliefs, earlier data and Farr’s predictions proved to be true: longitudinal child outcomes are directly related stress. We can therefore attribute a portion of child behavioral problems to stress, but not parent sexual orientation.

Farr, R. (2016, October 20). Does Parental Sexual Orientation Matter? A Longitudinal Follow-Up of Adoptive Families with School-Age Children. American Psychological Association: Developmental Psychology, 53(2) 252-264. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/dev0000228

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(link as pdf): http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/features/dev-dev0000228.pdf

Correlations in Adolescent Twin Behavior: The Spread of Substance Use

The Spread of Substance Use and Delinquency Between Adolescent Twins is the first of its kind to include so many factors when looking at twin influence. This study looked at the unique way problem behaviors spread across twins. This study is special in that it is trying to determine the way behaviors spread: studies have shown that there is concrete correlation between behaviors and twin’ influence, but none have shown the exact route. In the use of longitudinal studies of identical twins, it was questioning the discrepancies between delinquency and substance use. Behaviors during adolescence may be attributed to social pressure, this was accounted for; although there are the additional variables of external contributions, which could influence the sets of twins studied.

The researcher hypothesized that either a single-step transmission process or a two-step transmission process is responsible. A single-step transmission process involves influence of one twin’s behavior into the other across domains (intradomain). The other process emphasizes that interdomain paths first occur in one child, then spread to the other.

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Some issues factored into these influences, being that correlated partner scales violate independent statistics. To account for this, a longitudinal APIM was instituted. Potential confounding factors (such as influences from parents or peers) were also controlled for. The participants included boy and girl siblings, and differences in twins were similar to the sample of those in urban centers of Quebec. Interviews were conducted starting at age thirteen. A screening questionnaire measuring substance use was administered in English or French. A Self-Report Delinquency Scale was administered to review children’s behavior. The influence of peer influence was measured in which the child would elect five friends to complete it as well. Parents completed questionnaires measuring the possible influence they could have on the child, examining their parenting styles and their relationship with the child (dependent on the child’s behavior). To account for (gene) and environmental effects on sibling influence, the level of those factors was determined by creating a mathematical formula was subtracted later on. The data was subsequently collected at fourteen as well (as) fifteen years of age.

Correlations were made between substance abuse and delinquency. Findings were also partial to positive correlations of substance abuse over time. The research show that problem behaviors were observed across twins in each form of action between age thirteen and fourteen as well as age fourteen and fifteen. No statistics were significant for problem behaviors within twins across different forms of behavior, however. There were correlations made within a child demonstrating substance abuse could lead to subsequent delinquency and the other way around. With one exception initial high levels of delinquency could predict subsequent substance abuse (or the other way around). It should be said that substance use at age thirteen did not lead to subsequent delinquency at age fourteen, though. Indirect testing also showed that one twin’s delinquency at age thirteen affected another twin’s delinquency at age fourteen, which then in turn affected the initial sibling’s substance use at age fifteen. The Sobel test also proved this to be true in the other direction. It stated that it is more likely for problems to be spread from delinquency to another domain (substance abuse) than vice versa.

In conclusion, problems did not spread between twins across different forms of behavior. Rather, they spread indirectly by a two-step process. It spread either between twins within a behavioral domain and subsequently across behavioral domains, or first within one twin across behavioral domains and then between the two siblings, resulting from the behavior. These findings are solely based on domain and sibling influence, excluding other relevant factors. It is the first to examine with a full longitudinal design these various factors in sibling behavior, as well as how they spread. The ways in which these behaviors influence each other is complex, but it is conclusive that sibling behavior has major influences in twins’ behavior.

Vitaro, F. (2016). The Spread of Substance Use and Delinquency Between Adolescent Twins. American Psychological Association: Developmental Psychology, 53(2) 329-339. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/dev0000217

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Link pdf: http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/features/dev-dev0000217.pdf

Social Engagement and Adaptive Functioning During Early Childhood: Identifying and Distinguishing Among Subgroups with Regard to Social Engagement

The primary focus of this study tested whether social engagement influenced subsequent social competence. It is hypothesized that this (makes up a considerable portion of the) is a fundamental aspect of necessary stages in early childhood, from birth forward being characteristic of positive adaption. Although this study focuses on groups from different backgrounds, previous studies have demonstrated a critical link between this behavior and normal maturation. This experiment takes careful notice whether less easily noticeable types of children with low engagement exist during certain age categories and the effect of this later on. It is necessary to note that many factors play a part in a child’s social competence (not just social engagement during early years). Discrepancies found across the study included differences between genders in Portugal and the U.S.A (where the studies took place). Girls were found to have significantly lower social engagement scores in Portugal, whereas vice versa was true in the U.SA. Social engagement is important to examine because it could lead diagnosed disorders. Peer groups can form at any age level, although personal and environmental factors can influence social engagement in a child.

Boys and girls between the ages of three and four were studies mostly in preschool settings, and in Portugal the studies extended until (children were) five years of age. Initial interactions were observed, each during a fifteen (second) interval. The total “score” (number of initiated interactions) was divided by the number of times each child was studied (observation rounds). (Their modified SE variable was measured in relation to social engagement/social motivation.) Next, individual children’s behavior was observed (measured against a standard set). The researcher spent a minimum of twenty hours in every class room. Many controls were set in the classroom at the time of measurement. The last step was that each child identify children they especially liked or didn’t like. Peer acceptance was measured two ways.

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The results were as such: correlation seemed to reveal that there is a connection between social engagement and (neg. preference) social functioning. There were some differences found in pattern of associations of the new SE variable across the samples. They also wanted to test if there are meaningful differences in children who share common profiles. They used hierarchical cluster analysis to do this. Significant difference was noted in levels of SE. Children with the lowest levels of SE demonstrated lower levels of social skilled behavior, as well as being less easy to “see” as engaged children. They also tended to more overcontroling in regard to behavior. In conclusion, social engagement is positively correlated to social functioning across many levels. This is significant to their overarching social functioning and continuing learning in these areas.

Vaughn, B. (2016, October 8). Social Engagement and Adaptive Functioning During Early Childhood: Identifying and Distinguishing Among Subgroups with Regard to Social Engagement. American Psychological Association: Developmental Psychology, 52(9) 1422-1434. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/dev0000142

link as pdf: http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/features/dev-dev0000142.pdf

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