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Posted: April 8th, 2022
Characterisation of Electrostatically Charged Sprays of Biodiesels
Contents
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1.2 Organization of the thesis
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2.1.4 Ionic Mobility and Drift
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2.2 Jet Breakup Characteristics
2.3 Electrical Characteristics
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2.4.2 Electric Reynolds number
2.4.3 Electric jet Reynolds number
Chapter 3 : Experimental Method
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Chapter 4 : Electrical Characterisation of Electrostatic Charged Atomization
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Chapter 5 : Dimensionless numbers Relationship
5.1 5.1 Maximum QV and Er versus Rej
5.2 5.2 Electric Reynolds number
5.3 5.3 Electric Jet Reynolds number
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Chapter 6 : Jet and Spray Characteristics of Primary Atomization
6.1 6.1 Spray Characterisation
6.2 6.2 Location of on-set of dispersion
6.3 6.3 Theoretical Breakup Length Correlation
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Chapter 7 : Conclusions and Recommendations
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Chapter 1 : Introduction
1.1 Background
The electrohydrodynamic (EHD) atomization method has established in the four decades starting in 1976 by Kim & Turnbull [1] where chemically etched tip needle of radius less than 1 µm placed in glass capillary with extremely small current and flow rates. The EHD atomization works on the similar mechanism of fuel injection in small internal combustion engines however the EHD atomizer or electrostatically charged fuel injection system consumes much lower electrical power less than 2 m-Watt to generate sprays of fuel. EHD atomization is promised to provide for thermally efficient fuelled small engines less than 50-100cc and micro-combustors. However, due to limited knowledge and research EHD atomizers are not commercially available for combustion applications. This technology was matured time to time predominantly with the research work of J Shrimpton, A Yule, A Rigit, G Malkawi and A Kourmatzis.
The limitation of flow rate of 10-3 mL/s was surpassed by Kelly [2] who proposed a ‘Spray Triode’, a modified atomizer orifice contraction design with additional grounded electrode. The EHD atomizer was predominantly upgraded in three stages on modifying the nozzle design with introducing compact ‘Spray Triode’ by Kelly [2]. The first version of nozzle design was a simple electrode, charge emitter needle and orifice design for large diameter ~500 µm based on work of Jido [3,4], the second version was the Kelly’s [2] Spray Triode design and the third version added co-axial alignment of electrode tip and nozzle orifice which improved the performance and operation limitation to nozzle diameter as small as ~100 µm based on Shrimpton’s work [5].
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The first version of EHD atomizer was not only limited to 10-3 mL/s flow rate and 10-9 A total current but also the performance is decreases due to the fact that needle tip become blunt due to high electric flux causing Joule heating at the tip. The second version improved by Kelly [2] allowed atomizer to operate at volumetric flow rates of 1 mL/s which was much greater than that of Kim & Turnbull [1]. The issue with lower amount of current was also solved by placing grounded orifice plate as anode near to the specialized cathode charge emitting needle which is also similar to the work by Denat et. al and other co-workers [6,7,8]
The tip radius of charge emitting electrode was later increased to ~50-60 µm which was highlighted the fact by Shrimpton [9,10] that the atomizer work with same performance for radius greater than 1 µm an specialized emitter tip material of Kelly [2] was not required. The stainless steel sewing needle was used by Yule et. al [11] of tip radius 60 µm which corrected the wrong assumption of Kelly [2] based on the field emission mechanism of Kim & Turnbull [1], that Spray Triode required emitter tip radius of less than 1 µm so that the surface electric field intensity is increased.
Shrimpton [9,10] preferred to use negative polarity over positive. The charge emitting electrode requires lower electric field intensities E 5 109 V/m for negative polarity or field emission, whereas positive polarity or field ionization typically requires E 5 1010 V/m, greater in magnitude of 10, which was proposed by Robinson et al [12]. Crowley [13] suggested that the electric breakdown strength in most of the commercial fuels is found to be E 20 106 V/m.
The main objective of this project was to build an understanding of the characteristics of EHD atomization where the primary atomization is observed. The primary atomization is explained in detail in the literature by Shrimpton [5], which is the jet breakup mechanism that produce fine droplets and spray through electrical field discrepancy. The characteristics of EHD atomization are classified in two types, electrical characteristics and spray characteristics. The spray characteristics is defined by the quality of atomization which include finer droplet, larger cone angle of sprays and shorter jet breakup length. On the other hand, the electrical characteristics are observed for higher spray specific charge and electric field with current and voltage measurements.
1.2 Organization of the thesis
Chapter 2 : Literature Review
2.1 Electrohydrodynamics
Electrohydrodynamics (EHD) is the interdisciplinary field of physics which deals with the study of electrostatics and fluid dynamics of moving molecular ions in the fluid with the interaction of electric field [14,15]. In EHD atomizers, the Electrohydrodynamics plays an important role for understanding the operation of charged atomization which is provided with some governing equations. The charged atomization is defined as the dispersion and breakup of injected fluid jet into fine spray and droplets which is formed by introducing electrical charges to the fluid that causes disruptive electrical field.
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In Electrohydrodynamics, the fluid properties such as viscosity, surface tension and density are also studied and compared with the dielectric properties of the fluid. Following are some basic terminologies and equations required for this field of study.
2.1.1 Permittivity
Permittivity ε is the ability of a material to resist electric field which relates to Gauss’ Law of point electric charge as the ratio of electric field density and the electric field in free space
1 for the calculation of droplet velocity from the locations of fragments, and also the jet breakup length.
Figure 3.4: An example imaging set of four 2D-images using particle tracking
velocimetry technique, (#1 liquid jet tip, #2 & #3 fragments)
at L/D=2.5,
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uinj= 3.4 m/s, applied voltage of 10kV
3.5 Image Processing
The image processing was done using a MatLab code to generate binary image and using point picking technique on the images captured using CMOS camera to determine the location of on-set of dispersion and spray cone angle
α. The location of on-set of dispersion or start of dispersion is where the spray starts to separate from the injected liquid stream and spread an area. It has been observed that this location on-set of dispersion is same as jet breakup length. However, the breakup length cannot be accurate on macroscopic images due to low image resolutions that limit the visibility of jet breakup. The jet breakup length can only be measured using microscopic images captured using particle tracking velocimetry technique and an image processing script.
Figure 3.5: Binary image of a sample image of EHD atomizer
Chapter 4 : Electrical Characterisation of Electrostatic Charged Atomization
4.1 Spray Current IS
The spray current IS for diesel and biodiesel blends B1, B2, B3, B4 at L/D = 1.5 and 2 and variable jet velocities of 2.5 m/s, 5 m/s, 7.8 m/s and 10 m/s are plotted against the applied voltage V as shown in the Figures 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4 and 4.5. The different plots of spray current show parabolic profile with increasing voltage and a peak value is reached at a certain voltage, known as critical voltage Vc. As the voltage increases beyond this point the spray current starts decreasing and the spray collapses at the jet and reach the breakdown. The profile increases significantly up to the critical voltage and after this point the spray current drops. The parabolic profile is dependent on the voltage, L/D ratios, jet velocities and fuel type. Lower L/D ratio reaches maximum spray current prior to higher ratio and same for higher jet velocities.
Higher spray current values are observed for more viscous fuel such as Diesel, B3, B4 as compared to B1, B2 due to the lower ionic mobilities. The ionic mobility plays a vital role in the electrical performance of the fuel which is defined by the Walden’s rule [16] κ = Cµ-1, larger the molecular ions less sensitive the electric field. The electric field decreases as L/D increases which causes low level of charge emittance and due to this phenomenon of electrohydrodynamics, the electric charge reduces the electrostatic force between the spray and the droplets which lead to narrow spray angle, large droplet sizes and long jet breakup tip length.
When the jet collapse on the orifice, all the spray current is transferred to the grounded atomizer body and after this point, the spray current does not significantly increase with applied voltage, however the leakage current increases sharply. For some conditions of diesel and different biodiesel blends there is no spray breakdown occurring at the nozzle orifice while increasing the applied voltage. The spray current profiles for the selected fuels are similar qualitatively, however to achieve maximum spray current, higher applied voltage values are required for biodiesel blends.
Figure 4.1: Spray current versus voltage for Diesel at D=250µm, L/D=1.5 and 2 with different injection velocities uinj=2.5, 5, 7.8 and 10 m/s
Figure 4.2: Spray current versus voltage for Biodiesel B4 at D=250µm, L/D=1.5 and 2 with different injection velocities uinj=2.5, 5, 7.8 and 10 m/s
Figure 4.3: Spray current versus voltage for Biodiesel B3 at D=250µm, L/D=1.5 and 2 with different injection velocities uinj=2.5, 5, 7.8 and 10 m/s
Figure 4.4: Spray current versus voltage for Biodiesel B2 at D=250µm, L/D=1.5 and 2 with different injection velocities uinj=2.5, 5, 7.8 and 10 m/s
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Figure 4.5: Spray current versus voltage for Biodiesel B1 at D=250µm, L/D=1.5 and 2 with different injection velocities uinj=2.5, 5, 7.8 and 10 m/s
4.2 Specific Charge Qv.
The specific charge is the ratio of spray current to the volumetric flow rate. The specific charge Qv plots are obtained for different biodiesels and diesel at D=250µm, L/D=1.5 and 2 with different jet velocities uinj=2.5, 5, 7.8 and 10 m/s as shown in Figures 4.6, 4.7, 4.8, 4.9 and 4.10. It has been observed that the specific charge is higher for higher fuel viscosity such as B4, B3 and Diesel and lower for B2 and B1 similar to the spray current profile whereas the leakage current is higher in B1 and B2, and gets lower in B3, B4 and Diesel. The maximum spray specific charge is higher in EHD atomizer for smaller L/D=1.5 and shows a higher curve as compared to L/D=2. Furthermore, higher injection velocities allow more charge to flow in the EHD atomization compared to low velocity.
Figure 4.6: Specific charge versus voltage for Diesel at D=250µm, L/D=1.5 and 2 with different injection velocities uinj=2.5, 5, 7.8 and 10 m/s
Figure 4.7: Specific charge versus voltage for Biodiesel B4 at D=250µm, L/D=1.5 and 2 with different injection velocities uinj=2.5, 5, 7.8 and 10 m/s
Figure 4.8: Specific charge versus voltage for Biodiesel B3 at D=250µm, L/D=1.5 and 2 with different injection velocities uinj=2.5, 5, 7.8 and 10 m/s 
Figure 4.9: Specific charge versus voltage for Biodiesel B2 at D=250µm, L/D=1.5 and 2 with different injection velocities uinj=2.5, 5, 7.8 and 10 m/s
Figure 4.10: Specific charge versus voltage for Biodiesel B1 at D=250µm, L/D=1.5 and 2 with different injection velocities uinj=2.5, 5, 7.8 and 10 m/s
The peak values of spray specific charge called maximum specific charge are obtained for different biodiesels and diesel and presented in the Table 4.1. The biodiesels B1, B2, B3, B4 and Diesel are recorded with maximum specific charge 0.73, 0.86, 1.32, 1.55 and 0.79 C/m3 at critical voltages 9.5, 11.5, 9.5, 10.5 and 5 kV respectively at D=250µm, L/D=1.5 and 2 with different jet velocities uinj=2.5, 5, 7.8 and 10 m/s.
| Fuel | Density, ρ |
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